Contrast agents and cardiac MR imaging of myocardial ischemia: from bench to bedside

Myocardial Fibrosis Assessment at 3-T versus 5-T Myocardial Late Gadolinium Enhancement MRI: Early Results

Background Cardiac MRI at 5 T has recently become available and potentially improves tissue contrast enhancement at gadolinium chelate-enhanced T1-weighted imaging. Purpose To evaluate the feasibility of 5-T myocardial late gadolinium enhancement (LGE) MRI in assessing myocardial fibrosis by comparing image quality and LGE quantification with reference-standard 3-T myocardial LGE MRI. Materials and Methods Consecutive patients with confirmed myocardial fibrosis on previous 3-T MRI scans between January 2023 and July 2023 prospectively underwent follow-up imaging from August 2023 to November 2023. Each participant underwent follow-up 5-T imaging using an identical dose of contrast agent. Radiologist scoring of image quality using a Likert scale (range, 1-5), signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), contrast-to-noise ratio (CNR), contrast ratio, and semiautomatic quantitative LGE assessment were obtained and reported as medians and IQRs. Paired Wilcoxon signed rank tests were used to compare characteristics derived at 3-T and 5-T imaging. Results A total of 18 participants (mean age, 49 years ± 17 [SD]; nine male participants) were included, with a mean interval of 6.2 months ± 2.3 between undergoing 3-T and 5-T MRI. Median image quality scores were 4.0 (IQR, 3.0-4.2) at 3 T and 4.0 (IQR, 3.0-4.4) at 5 T (P = .45). SNR at 5 T was higher than at 3 T (183.7 [IQR, 147.2-255.9] vs 125.8 [IQR, 108.2-171.6], respectively; P = .002). Median CNR at 5 T was higher than at 3 T in normal myocardium (50.8 [IQR, 35.4-67.9] vs 16.5 [IQR, 11.3-24.6], respectively) and pericardial fat (21.4 [IQR, 7.1-29.3] vs -5.0 [IQR, -16.4 to -2.3], respectively) (both P < .001). There was no evidence of a difference in the percentage of LGE quantified between 5 T and 3 T (median, 11.8% [IQR, 7.7%-20.5%] vs 12.6% [IQR, 6.6%-20.4%], respectively; P = .81). Conclusion Myocardial LGE MRI at 5 T was found to be feasible, with no evidence of differences in subjective image quality and myocardial fibrosis quantification compared with 3-T myocardial LGE MRI. Furthermore, with use of identical contrast agent doses, SNRs and CNRs were improved at 5 T. Published under a CC BY 4.0 license. Supplemental material is available for this article. See also the editorial by Czum in this issue.

Assessing Regurgitation Severity, Adverse Remodeling, and Fibrosis with CMR in Primary Mitral Regurgitation

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

This review offers an evidence-based analysis of established and emerging cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR) techniques used to assess the severity of primary mitral regurgitation (MR), identify adverse cardiac remodeling and its prognostic effect. The aim is to provide different insights regarding clinical decision-making and enhance the clinical outcomes of patients with MR.

RECENT FINDINGS

Cardiac remodeling and myocardial replacement fibrosis are observed frequently in the presence of substantial LV volume overload, particularly in cases with severe primary MR. CMR serves as a useful diagnostic imaging modality in assessing mitral regurgitation severity, early detection of cardiac remodeling, myocardial dysfunction, and myocardial fibrosis, enabling timely intervention before irreversible damage ensues. Incorporating myocardial remodeling in terms of left ventricular (LV) dilatation and myocardial fibrosis with quantitative MR severity assessment by CMR may assist in defining optimal timing of intervention.

Assessing Regurgitation Severity, Adverse Remodeling, and Fibrosis with CMR in Aortic Regurgitation

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) is emerging as a valuable imaging modality for the assessment of aortic regurgitation (AR). In this review, we discuss the assessment of AR severity, left ventricular (LV) remodeling, and tissue characterization by CMR while highlighting the latest studies and addressing future research needs.

RECENT FINDINGS

Recent studies have further established CMR-based thresholds of AR severity and LV remodeling that are associated with adverse clinical outcomes, and lower than current guideline criteria. In addition, tissue profiling with late gadolinium enhancement (LGE) and extracellular volume (ECV) quantification can reliably assess adverse myocardial tissue remodeling which is also associated with adverse outcomes. The strengths and reproducibility of CMR in evaluating ventricular volumes, tissue characteristics, and regurgitation severity position it as an excellent modality in evaluating and following AR patients. Advanced CMR techniques for the detection of tissue remodeling have shown significant potential and merit further investigation.

Characterizing the Heart and the Myocardium With Photon-Counting CT

ABSTRACT

Noninvasive cardiac imaging has rapidly evolved during the last decade owing to improvements in computed tomography (CT)-based technologies, among which we highlight the recent introduction of the first clinical photon-counting detector CT (PCD-CT) system. Multiple advantages of PCD-CT have been demonstrated, including increased spatial resolution, decreased electronic noise, and reduced radiation exposure, which may further improve diagnostics and may potentially impact existing management pathways. The benefits that can be obtained from the initial experiences with PCD-CT are promising. The implementation of this technology in cardiovascular imaging allows for the quantification of coronary calcium, myocardial extracellular volume, myocardial radiomics features, epicardial and pericoronary adipose tissue, and the qualitative assessment of coronary plaques and stents. This review aims to discuss these major applications of PCD-CT with a focus on cardiac and myocardial characterization.

Assessment of Right Ventricular Function-a State of the Art

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The right ventricle (RV) has a complex geometry and physiology which is distinct from the left. RV dysfunction and failure can be the aftermath of volume- and/or pressure-loading conditions, as well as myocardial and pericardial diseases.

RECENT FINDINGS

Echocardiography, magnetic resonance imaging and right heart catheterisation can assess RV function by using several qualitative and quantitative parameters. In pulmonary hypertension (PH) in particular, RV function can be impaired and is related to survival. An accurate assessment of RV function is crucial for the early diagnosis and management of these patients. This review focuses on the different modalities and indices used for the evaluation of RV function with an emphasis on PH.

Practical Approach to Diagnosis, Prevention, and Management of Coronary No-Reflow

Coronary no-reflow (NR) defined as inadequate myocardial perfusion despite restoration of coronary artery patency is a bane for an interventional cardiologist. It can complicate percutaneous coronary interventions especially in the setting of STEMI and dampens the potential benefits of PPCI. Broadly classified as Reperfusion NR and Interventional NR, mechanism is multifactorial. The basic underlying culprit is microvascular obstruction either secondary to distal embolization, intravascular plugging, or ischemic reperfusion injury. Coronary angiogram is an easy, readily available, and essential modality to diagnose no-reflow, but the gold standard is gadolinium-enhanced cardiovascular magnetic resonance imaging. Preventive strategies for NR should be integral part of prePCI planning especially in clinical scenario where NR is expected such as STEMI with delayed presentation and high thrombus burden, atherectomy, and SVG PCI. The cornerstone of treatment for NR is local vasodilators and antiplatelet therapy to ameliorate vasospasm and thromboembolism respectively, and different combinations of the two should be used in no specific order to achieve reversal of NR. NR phenomenon is associated with poor short-term and long-term prognosis and every attempt should be made to avoid or reverse it. Therapeutic hypothermia, hyperoxemic reperfusion therapy, targeted anti-inflammatory approach, and cellular approach appear proising but further research is mandatory.

Exploring the cardiac ECM during fibrosis: A new era with next-gen proteomics

Extracellular matrix (ECM) plays a critical role in maintaining elasticity in cardiac tissues. Elasticity is required in the heart for properly pumping blood to the whole body. Dysregulated ECM remodeling causes fibrosis in the cardiac tissues. Cardiac fibrosis leads to stiffness in the heart tissues, resulting in heart failure. During cardiac fibrosis, ECM proteins get excessively deposited in the cardiac tissues. In the ECM, cardiac fibroblast proliferates into myofibroblast upon various kinds of stimulations. Fibroblast activation (myofibroblast) contributes majorly toward cardiac fibrosis. Other than cardiac fibroblasts, cardiomyocytes, epithelial/endothelial cells, and immune system cells can also contribute to cardiac fibrosis. Alteration in the expression of the ECM core and ECM-modifier proteins causes different types of cardiac fibrosis. These different components of ECM culminated into different pathways inducing transdifferentiation of cardiac fibroblast into myofibroblast. In this review, we summarize the role of different ECM components during cardiac fibrosis progression leading to heart failure. Furthermore, we highlight the importance of applying mass-spectrometry-based proteomics to understand the key changes occurring in the ECM during fibrotic progression. Next-gen proteomics studies will broaden the potential to identify key targets to combat cardiac fibrosis in order to achieve precise medicine-development in the future.

Multimodality imaging in acute myocarditis

The diagnosis of acute myocarditis often involves several noninvasive techniques that can provide information regarding volumes, ejection fraction, and tissue characterization. In particular, echocardiography is extremely helpful for the evaluation of biventricular volumes, strain and ejection fraction. Cardiac magnetic resonance, beyond biventricular volumes, strain, and ejection fraction allows to characterize myocardial tissue providing information regarding edema, hyperemia, and fibrosis. Contemporary cardiac computed tomography angiography (CCTA) can not only be extremely important for the assessment of coronary arteries, pulmonary arteries and aorta but also tissue characterization using CCTA can be an additional tool that can explain chest pain with a diagnosis of myocarditis.

"No-Reflow" Phenomenon: A Contemporary Review

Primary percutaneous angioplasty (pPCI), represents the reperfusion strategy of choice for patients with STEMI according to current international guidelines of the European Society of Cardiology. Coronary no-reflow is characterized by angiographic evidence of slow or no anterograde epicardial flow, resulting in inadequate myocardial perfusion in the absence of evidence of mechanical vessel obstruction. No reflow (NR) is related to a functional and structural alteration of the coronary microcirculation and we can list four main pathophysiological mechanisms: distal atherothrombotic embolization, ischemic damage, reperfusion injury, and individual susceptibility to microvascular damage. This review will provide a contemporary overview of the pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment of NR.

Advanced cardiovascular multimodal imaging and aortic stenosis

Aortic valve stenosis has become the most common valvular heart disease on account of aging population and increasing life expectancy. Echocardiography is the primary diagnosis tool for this, but it still has many flaws. Therefore, advanced cardiovascular multimodal imaging techniques are continuously being developed in order to overcome these limitations. Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (CMR) allows a comprehensive morphological and functional evaluation of the aortic valve and provides important data for the diagnosis and risk stratification in patients with aortic stenosis. CMR can functionally assess the aortic flow using two-dimensional and time-resolved three-dimensional velocity-encoded phase-contrast techniques. Furthermore, by late gadolinium enhancement and T1-mapping, CMR can reveal the presence of both irreversible replacement and diffuse interstitial myocardial fibrosis. Moreover, its role in guiding aortic valve replacement procedures is beginning to take shape. Recent studies have rendered the importance of active and passive biomechanics in risk stratification and prognosis prediction in patients with aortic stenosis, but more work is required is just in its infancy, but data are promising. In addition, cardiac computed tomography is particularly useful for the diagnosis of aortic valve stenosis, and in preprocedural evaluation of the aorta, while positron emission tomography can be also used to assess valvular inflammation and active calcification. The purpose of this review is to provide a comprehensive overview of current available data regarding advanced cardiovascular multimodal imaging in aortic stenosis.

Cardiac Magnetic Resonance in Pulmonary Hypertension-an Update

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

This article reviews advances over the past 3 years in cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) imaging in pulmonary hypertension (PH). We aim to bring the reader up-to-date with CMR applications in diagnosis, prognosis, 4D flow, strain analysis, T1 mapping, machine learning and ongoing research.

RECENT FINDINGS

CMR volumetric and functional metrics are now established as valuable prognostic markers in PH. This imaging modality is increasingly used to assess treatment response and improves risk stratification when incorporated into PH risk scores. Emerging techniques such as myocardial T1 mapping may play a role in the follow-up of selected patients. Myocardial strain may be used as an early marker for right and left ventricular dysfunction and a predictor for mortality. Machine learning has offered a glimpse into future possibilities. Ongoing research of new PH therapies is increasingly using CMR as a clinical endpoint.

SUMMARY

The last 3 years have seen several large studies establishing CMR as a valuable diagnostic and prognostic tool in patients with PH, with CMR increasingly considered as an endpoint in clinical trials of PH therapies. Machine learning approaches to improve automation and accuracy of CMR metrics and identify imaging features of PH is an area of active research interest with promising clinical utility.

Emidec: A Database Usable for the Automatic Evaluation of Myocardial Infarction from Delayed-Enhancement Cardiac MRI

One crucial parameter to evaluate the state of the heart after myocardial infarction (MI) is the viability of the myocardial segment, i.e., if the segment recovers its functionality upon revascularization. MRI performed several minutes after the injection of a contrast agent (delayed enhancement-MRI or DE-MRI) is a method of choice to evaluate the extent of MI, and by extension, to assess viable tissues after an injury. The Emidec dataset is composed of a series of exams with DE-MR images in short axis orientation covering the left ventricle from normal cases or patients with myocardial infarction, with the contouring of the myocardium and diseased areas (if present) from experts in the domains. Moreover, classical available clinical parameters when the patient is managed by an emergency department are provided for each case. To the best of our knowledge, the Emidec dataset is the first one where annotated DE-MRI are combined with clinical characteristics of the patient, allowing the development of methodologies for exam classification as for exam quantification.

Positron emission tomography/MRI for cardiac diseases assessment

Functional imaging tools have emerged in the last few decades and are increasingly used to assess the function of the human heart in vivo. Positron emission tomography (PET) is used to evaluate myocardial metabolism and blood flow. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is an essential tool for morphological and functional evaluation of the heart. In cardiology, PET is successfully combined with CT for hybrid cardiac imaging. The effective integration of two imaging modalities allows simultaneous data acquisition combining functional, structural and molecular imaging. After PET/CT has been successfully accepted for clinical practices, hybrid PET/MRI is launched. This review elaborates the current evidence of PET/MRI in cardiovascular imaging and its expected clinical applications for a comprehensive assessment of cardiovascular diseases while highlighting the advantages and limitations of this hybrid imaging approach.

Intensity and Distribution of Patchy Late Gadolinium Enhancement in Left Atrium in Patients With Atrial Fibrillation

Purpose

Late gadolinium enhancement (LGE) cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) studies were performed on healthy individuals to establish signal intensity thresholds for reproducible left atrial (LA) patchy LGE detection. Using established criteria, differences in LA patchy LGE between healthy volunteers (HV) and patients with atrial fibrillation (AF) or hypertension were analyzed.

Methods

Fifty-three patents with AF (mean age 56 years, 60% men), 25 patients with hypertension and no history of AF (mean age 54 years, 40% men), and 28 HV (mean age 50 years, 52% men) were enrolled in an observational, non-interventional, case-control prospective study. LA patchy LGE quantification was performed using LGE MRI (1.5 T scanner, voxel size 1.25x1.25x2.5 mm) and the custom-built software based on estimation of LA voxel image intensity ratio and comparison with threshold value obtained from HV data.

Results

Based on analysis of healthy individuals' data, the optimal threshold value for the left atrial patchy LGE quantification was determined at 1.38. Patients with AF had a higher extent of LA patchy LGE (9.1 [1.72; 18.58] %) than patients with hypertension (3.81 [0.57; 9.51] %) and HV (0.78 [0.05; 3.5] %). The predominant location of LA patchy LGE in AF was in the pulmonary vein ostia region, in hypertension - LA posterior wall, and in HV - lower part of LA posterior wall. In AF patients, the extent of LA patchy LGE correlated with LA end-diastolic volume (r=0.37) and LA ejection fraction (r=-0.4), in HV - with age (r=0.66) and LA end-diastolic volume (r=0.4).

Conclusion

AF and hypertension are associated with higher extent and different location of LA patchy LGE compared to changes caused by natural aging. The extent of LA patchy enhancement correlates with LA dilatation.

Usefulness of Cardiac Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Aortic Stenosis

The objective of this review is to provide an overview of the role of cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) in aortic stenosis (AS). Although CMR is undeniably the gold standard for assessing left ventricular volume, mass, and function, the assessment of the left ventricular repercussions of AS by CMR is not routinely performed in clinical practice, and its role in evaluating and quantifying AS is not yet well established. CMR is an imaging modality integrating myocardial function and disease, which could be particularly useful in a pathology like AS that should be considered as a global myocardial disease rather than an isolated valve disease. In this review, we discuss the emerging potential of CMR for the diagnosis and prognosis of AS. We detail its utility for studying all aspects of AS, including valve anatomy, flow quantification, left ventricular volumes, mass, remodeling, and function, tissue mapping, and 4-dimensional flow magnetic resonance imaging. We also discuss different clinical situations where CMR could be useful in AS, for example, in low-flow low-gradient AS to confirm the low-flow state and to understand the reason for the left ventricular dysfunction or when there is a suspicion of associated cardiac amyloidosis.

Diagnostic accuracy of strain imaging in predicting myocardial viability after an ST-elevation myocardial infarction

In the acute phase of ST-elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) viability imaging techniques are not validated and/or not available.This study aimed to evaluate the ability of strain parameters assessed in the acute phase of STEMI, to predict myocardial viability after revascularization.Thirty-one STEMI patients whose culprit coronary artery was recanalized and in whom baseline echocardiogram showed an akinesia in the infarcted area, were prospectively included. Bidimensional left ventricular global longitudinal strain (GLS), and territorial longitudinal strain (TLS) in the territory of the infarct related artery were obtained within 24 hours from admission. Delayed enhancement (DE) cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (CMR) was used as a reference test to assess post-revascularization myocardial viability. DE-CMR was performed 3 months after percutaneous coronary intervention. According to myocardial viability, patients were divided into 2 groups; CMR viable myocardium patients with more than half of infarcted segments having a DE <50% (group V) and CMR nonviable myocardium patients with half or more of the infarcted segments having a DE >50% (group NV).GLS and TLS were lower in group V compared to group NV (respectively: -14.4% ± 2.9% vs -10.9% ± 2.4%, P = .002 and -11.0 ± 4.1 vs -3.2 ± 3.1, P = .001). GLS was correlated with DE-CMR (r = 0.54, P = .002) and a cut off value of -13.9% for GLS predicted viability with 86% sensitivity (Se) and 78% specificity (Sp). TLS showed the strongest correlation with DE-CMR (r = 0.69, P < .001). A cut off value of -9.4% for TLS yielded a Se of 78% and a Sp of 95% to predict myocardial viability.GLS and TLS measured in the acute phase of STEMI predicted myocardial viability assessed by 3 months DE-CMR. They are prognostic indicators and they can be used to guide the priority and usefulness of percutaneous coronary intervention in these patients.

Non-ischemic dilated cardiomyopathy and cardiac fibrosis

Cardiac fibrosis is associated with non-ischemic dilated cardiomyopathy, increasing its morbidity and mortality. Cardiac fibroblast is the keystone of fibrogenesis, being activated by numerous cellular and humoral factors. Macrophages, CD4+ and CD8+ T cells, mast cells, and endothelial cells stimulate fibrogenesis directly by activating cardiac fibroblasts and indirectly by synthetizing various profibrotic molecules. The synthesis of type 1 and type 3 collagen, fibronectin, and α-smooth muscle actin is rendered by various mechanisms like transforming growth factor-beta/small mothers against decapentaplegic pathway, renin angiotensin system, and estrogens, which in turn alter the extracellular matrix. Investigating the underlying mechanisms will allow the development of diagnostic and prognostic tools and discover novel specific therapies. Serum biomarkers aid in the diagnosis and tracking of cardiac fibrosis progression. The diagnostic gold standard is cardiac magnetic resonance with gadolinium administration that allows quantification of cardiac fibrosis either by late gadolinium enhancement assessment or by T1 mapping. Therefore, the goal is to stop and even reverse cardiac fibrosis by developing specific therapies that directly target fibrogenesis, in addition to the drugs used to treat heart failure. Cardiac resynchronization therapy had shown to revert myocardial remodeling and to reduce cardiac fibrosis. The purpose of this review is to provide an overview of currently available data.

[Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging with contrast enhancement in treatment of atrial fibrillation]

Catheter ablation is presently the main method for interventional treatment of atrial fibrillation (AF). Despite improvements of the method and accumulation of personnel's experience, incidence of recurrent AF following catheter interventions remains high. This review addresses a possibility of using contrast-enhanced cardiac magnetic resonance imaging to increase the effectiveness of interventional treatment of arrhythmia.

Mechanisms of cardiac collagen deposition in experimental models and human disease

The inappropriate deposition of extracellular matrix within the heart (termed cardiac fibrosis) is associated with nearly all types of heart disease, including ischemic, hypertensive, diabetic, and valvular. This alteration in the composition of the myocardium can physically limit cardiomyocyte contractility and relaxation, impede electrical conductivity, and hamper regional nutrient diffusion. Fibrosis can be grossly divided into 2 types, namely reparative (where collagen deposition replaces damaged myocardium) and reactive (where typically diffuse collagen deposition occurs without myocardial damage). Despite the widespread association of fibrosis with heart disease and general understanding of its negative impact on heart physiology, it is still not clear when collagen deposition becomes pathologic and translates into disease symptoms. In this review, we have summarized the current knowledge of cardiac fibrosis in human patients and experimental animal models, discussing the mechanisms that have been deduced from the latter in relation to the former. Because assessment of the extent of fibrosis is paramount both as a research tool to further understanding and as a clinical tool to assess patients, we have also summarized the current state of noninvasive/minimally invasive detection systems for cardiac fibrosis. Albeit not exhaustive, our aim is to provide an overview of the current understanding of cardiac fibrosis, both clinically and experimentally.

Defining myocardial fibrosis in haemodialysis patients with non-contrast cardiac magnetic resonance

Background

Extent of myocardial fibrosis (MF) determined using late gadolinium enhanced (LGE) predicts outcomes, but gadolinium is contraindicated in advanced renal disease. We assessed the ability of native T1-mapping to identify and quantify MF in aortic stenosis patients (AS) as a model for use in haemodialysis patients.

Methods

We compared the ability to identify areas of replacement-MF using native T1-mapping to LGE in 25 AS patients at 3 T. We assessed agreement between extent of MF defined by LGE full-width-half-maximum (FWHM) and the LGE 3-standard-deviations (3SD) in AS patients and nine T1 thresholding-techniques, with thresholds set 2-to-9 standard-deviations above normal-range (1083 ± 33 ms). A further technique was tested that set an individual T1-threshold for each patient (T11SD). The technique that agreed most strongly with FWHM or 3SD in AS patients was used to compare extent of MF between AS (n = 25) and haemodialysis patients (n = 25).

Results

Twenty-six areas of enhancement were identified on LGE images, with 25 corresponding areas of discretely increased native T1 signal identified on T1 maps. Global T1 was higher in haemodialysis than AS patients (1279 ms ± 5.8 vs 1143 ms ± 12.49, P < 0.01). No signal-threshold technique derived from standard-deviations above normal-range associated with FWHM or 3SD. T11SD correlated with FWHM in AS patients (r = 0.55) with moderate agreement (ICC = 0.64), (but not with 3SD). Extent of MF defined by T11SD was higher in haemodialysis vs AS patients (21.92% ± 1 vs 18.24% ± 1.4, P = 0.038), as was T1 in regions-of-interest defined as scar (1390 ± 8.7 vs 1276 ms ± 20.5, P < 0.01). There was no difference in the relative difference between remote myocardium and regions defined as scar, between groups (111.4 ms ± 7.6 vs 133.2 ms ± 17.5, P = 0.26).

Conclusions

Areas of MF are identifiable on native T1 maps, but absolute thresholds to define extent of MF could not be determined. Histological studies are needed to assess the ability of native-T1 signal-thresholding techniques to define extent of MF in haemodialysis patients.

Data is taken from the PRIMID-AS (NCT01658345) and CYCLE-HD studies (ISRCTN11299707).

Extracardiac findings at cardiac MR imaging: a single-centre retrospective study over 14 years

OBJECTIVES

To determine the prevalence and significance of extracardiac findings (ECF) in a large set of cardiac magnetic resonance (MR) imaging examinations.

METHODS

The institutional review board (IRB) of the Charité approved this retrospective, single-centre study. A total of 4376 cardiac MR imaging reports of 3553 patients (age 37.4 ± 20 years, 60.8 % male) examined from 2000 to 2014 were included. Findings with a recommendation for follow-up were considered "major ECF". To analyse the association of indication, age and gender with ECF, Poisson regression and computed incidence rate ratios (IRR) were evaluated.

RESULTS

The overall prevalence of ECF was 34% (95% confidence interval [CI] 32.5-35.6%). Major ECF were present in 3.4% (95% CI 2.9-4.1%) while findings that changed patient management were found in 0.9% (95% CI 0.7-1.3%). In the cases of congenital heart disease, ECF prevalence was higher compared to myocarditis (IRR, 6.0; 95% CI 5.1-7.1%; p < 0.001), while the prevalence of major ECF was lower (IRR, 0.2; 95% CI 0.02-0.51%; p < 0.05). Older patient age was associated with more nonvascular ECF (p < 0.001). Female patients had the same probability of having an ECF as male patients (IRR, 1.04; 95% CI 0.95-1.1%; p = 0.43).

CONCLUSION

ECF in cardiac MR imaging are present in about every third patient while relevant ECF that change patient management can be found in about one out of 100 patients. Our data suggest that it is important to involve well-trained radiologists in reading cardiac MR images, which often reveal ECF if congenital heart disease is the clinical indication.

KEY POINTS

• Extracardiac findings are present in about every third patient. • Relevant ECF changing patient management are found in one out of 100 findings. • Chance of ECF is high in patients with CHD and vascular indications.

Cardiovascular magnetic resonance imaging to assess myocardial fibrosis in valvular heart disease

The left ventricular (LV) remodeling process associated with significant valvular heart disease (VHD) is characterized by an increase of myocardial interstitial space with deposition of collagen and loss of myofibers. These changes occur before LV systolic function deteriorates or the patient develops symptoms. Cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR) permits assessment of reactive fibrosis, with the use of T1 mapping techniques, and replacement fibrosis, with the use of late gadolinium contrast enhancement. In addition, functional consequences of these structural changes can be evaluated with myocardial tagging and feature tracking CMR, which assess the active deformation (strain) of the LV myocardium. Several studies have demonstrated that CMR techniques may be more sensitive than the conventional measures (LV ejection fraction or LV dimensions) to detect these structural and functional changes in patients with severe left-sided VHD and have shown that myocardial fibrosis may not be reversible after valve surgery. More important, the presence of myocardial fibrosis has been associated with lesser improvement in clinical symptoms and recovery of LV systolic function. Whether assessment of myocardial fibrosis may better select the patients with severe left-sided VHD who may benefit from surgery in terms of LV function and clinical symptoms improvement needs to be demonstrated in prospective studies. The present review article summarizes the current status of CMR techniques to assess myocardial fibrosis and appraises the current evidence on the use of these techniques for risk stratification of patients with severe aortic stenosis or regurgitation and mitral regurgitation.

Cardiac T1 mapping in congenital heart disease: bolus vs. infusion protocols for measurements of myocardial extracellular volume fraction

Myocardial extracellular volume fraction (ECV) reflecting diffuse myocardial fibrosis can be measured with T1 mapping cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR) before and after the application of a gadolinium-based extracellular contrast agent. The equilibrium between blood and myocardium contrast concentration required for ECV measurements can be obtained with a primed contrast infusion (equilibrium contrast-CMR). We hypothesized that equilibrium can also be achieved with a single contrast bolus to accurately measure diffuse myocardial fibrosis in patients with congenital heart disease (CHD). Healthy controls (n = 17; median age 24.0 years) and patients with CHD (n = 19; 25.0 years) were prospectively enrolled. Using modified Look-Locker inversion recovery T1 mapping before, 15 min after bolus injection, and during constant infusion of gadolinium-DOTA, T1 values were obtained for blood pool and myocardium of the left ventricle (LV), the interventricular septum (IVS), and the right ventricle (RV) in a single midventricular plane in short axis or in transverse orientation. ECV of LV, IVS and RV by bolus-only and bolus-infusion correlated significantly in CHD patients (r = 0.94, 0.95, and 0.74; p < 0.01, respectively) and healthy controls (r = 0.96, 0.89, and 0.64; p < 0.05, respectively). Bland-Altman plots revealed no significant bias between the techniques for any of the analyzed regions. ECV of LV and RV myocardium measured by bolus-only T1 mapping agrees well with bolus-infusion measurements in patients with CHD. The use of a bolus-only approach facilitates the integration of ECV measurements into existing CMR imaging protocols, allowing for assessment of diffuse myocardial fibrosis in CHD in clinical routine.

T1 Mapping for Myocardial Fibrosis by Cardiac Magnetic Resonance Relaxometry-A Comprehensive Technical Review

Cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) imaging has been widely used to assess myocardial perfusion and scar and is the non-invasive gold standard for identification of focal myocardial fibrosis. However, the late gadolinium enhancement technique is limited in its accuracy for absolute quantification and assessment of diffuse myocardial fibrosis by technical and pathophysiological features. CMR relaxometry, incorporating T₁ mapping, has emerged as an accurate, reproducible, highly sensitive, and quantitative technique for the assessment of diffuse myocardial fibrosis in a number of disease states. We comprehensively review the physics behind CMR relaxometry, the evidence base, and the clinical applications of this emerging technique.

Imaging of Myocardial Fibrosis in Patients with End-Stage Renal Disease: Current Limitations and Future Possibilities

Cardiovascular disease in patients with end-stage renal disease (ESRD) is driven by a different set of processes than in the general population. These processes lead to pathological changes in cardiac structure and function that include the development of left ventricular hypertrophy and left ventricular dilatation and the development of myocardial fibrosis. Reduction in left ventricular hypertrophy has been the established goal of many interventional trials in patients with chronic kidney disease, but a recent systematic review has questioned whether reduction of left ventricular hypertrophy improves cardiovascular mortality as previously thought. The development of novel imaging biomarkers that link to cardiovascular outcomes and that are specific to the disease processes in ESRD is therefore required. Postmortem studies of patients with ESRD on hemodialysis have shown that the extent of myocardial fibrosis is strongly linked to cardiovascular death and accurate imaging of myocardial fibrosis would be an attractive target as an imaging biomarker. In this article we will discuss the current imaging methods available to measure myocardial fibrosis in patients with ESRD, the reliability of the techniques, specific challenges and important limitations in patients with ESRD, and how to further develop the techniques we have so they are sufficiently robust for use in future clinical trials.

The no-reflow phenomenon: State of the art

Primary percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) is the best available reperfusion strategy for acute ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI), with nearly 95% of occluded coronary vessels being reopened in this setting. Despite re-establishing epicardial coronary vessel patency, primary PCI may fail to restore optimal myocardial reperfusion within the myocardial tissue, a failure at the microvascular level known as no-reflow (NR). NR has been reported to occur in up to 60% of STEMI patients with optimal coronary vessel reperfusion. When it does occur, it significantly attenuates the beneficial effect of reperfusion therapy, leading to poor outcomes. The pathophysiology of NR is complex and incompletely understood. Many phenomena are known to contribute to NR, including leukocyte infiltration, vasoconstriction, activation of inflammatory pathways and cellular oedema. Vascular damage and haemorrhage may also play important roles in the establishment of NR. In this review, we describe the pathophysiological mechanisms of NR and the tools available for diagnosing it. We also describe the microvasculature and the endothelial mechanisms involved in NR, which may provide relevant therapeutic targets for reducing NR and improving the prognosis for patients.

Growth differentiation factor 15 may protect the myocardium from no‑reflow by inhibiting the inflammatory‑like response that predominantly involves neutrophil infiltration

The aim of the current study was to investigate the time course of the expression of growth differentiation factor‑15 (GDF‑15) in rat ischemic myocardium with increasing durations of reperfusion, and to elucidate its physiopathological role in the no‑reflow phenomenon. Wistar rats were randomly divided into ischemia reperfusion (I/R) and sham groups, and myocardial I/R was established by ligation of the left anterior descending coronary artery for 1 h followed by reperfusion for 2, 4, 6, 12, 24 h and 7 days whilst rats in the sham group were subjected to a sham operation. The expression levels of GDF‑15 and ICAM‑1 were measured, in addition to myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity. The myocardial anatomical no‑reflow and infarction areas were assessed. The area at risk was not significantly different following various periods of reperfusion, while the infarct area and no‑reflow area were significantly greater following 6 h of reperfusion (P<0.05). The mRNA and protein expression levels of GDF‑15 were increased during the onset and development of no‑reflow, and peaked following 24 h of reperfusion. MPO activity was reduced with increasing reperfusion duration, while ICAM‑1 levels were increased. Hematoxylin and eosin staining demonstrated that myocardial neutrophil infiltration was significantly increased by I/R injury, in particular following 2, 4 and 6 h of reperfusion. GDF‑15 expression levels were negatively correlated with MPO activity (r=‑0.55, P<0.001), and the MPO activity was negatively correlated with the area of no‑reflow (r=‑0.46, P<0.01). By contrast, GDF‑15 was significantly positively correlated with ICAM‑1 levels (r=0.52, P<0.01), which additionally were demonstrated to be significantly positively associated with the size of the no‑reflow area (r=0.39, P<0.05). The current study demonstrated the time course effect of reperfusion on the expression of GDF‑15 in the myocardial I/R rat model, with the shorter reperfusion times (6 h) resulting in significant no‑reflow in ischemic myocardium. GDF‑15 may protect the I/R myocardium from no‑reflow by inhibiting the inflammatory‑like response, which involves neutrophil infiltration and transendothelial migration.

Cardiac MR imaging: current status and future direction

Coronary artery disease is currently a worldwide epidemic with increasing impact on healthcare systems. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) sequences give complementary information on LV function, regional perfusion, angiogenesis, myocardial viability and orientations of myocytes. T2-weighted short-tau inversion recovery (T2-STIR), fat suppression and black blood sequences have been frequently used for detecting edematous area at risk (AAR) of infarction. T2 mapping, however, indicated that the edematous reaction in acute myocardial infarct (AMI) is not stable and warranted the use of edematous area in evaluating therapies. On the other hand, cine MRI demonstrated reproducible data on LV function in healthy volunteers and LV remodeling in patients. Noninvasive first pass perfusion, using exogenous tracer (gadolinium-based contrast media) and arterial spin labeling MRI, using endogenous tracer (water), are sensitive and useful techniques for evaluating myocardial perfusion and angiogenesis. Recently, new strategies have been developed to quantify myocardial viability using T1-mapping and equilibrium contrast enhanced MR techniques because existing delayed contrast enhancement MRI (DE-MRI) sequences are limited in detecting patchy microinfarct and diffuse fibrosis. These new techniques were successfully used for characterizing diffuse myocardial fibrosis associated with myocarditis, amyloidosis, sarcoidosis heart failure, aortic hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, congenital heart disease, restrictive cardiomyopathy, arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia and hypertension). Diffusion MRI provides information regarding microscopic tissue structure, while diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) helps to characterize the myocardium and monitor the process of LV remodeling after AMI. Novel trends in hybrid imaging, such as cardiac positron emission tomography (PET)/MRI and optical imaging/MRI, are recently under intensive investigation. With the promise of higher spatial-temporal resolution and 3D coverage in the near future, cardiac MRI will be an indispensible tool in the diagnosis of cardiac diseases, coronary intervention and myocardial therapeutic delivery.

Tissue characterization of the myocardium: state of the art characterization by magnetic resonance and computed tomography imaging

Late gadolinium enhancement (LGE) is a simple, robust, well-validated method for assessing scar in acute and chronic myocardial infarction. LGE is useful for distinguishing between ischemic and nonischemic cardiomyopathy. Specific LGE patterns are seen in nonischemic cardiomyopathy. Patient studies using T1 mapping have varied in study, design, and acquisition sequences. Despite the differences in technique, a clear pattern that has been seen is that in cardiac disease postcontrast T1 times are shorter. Extracellular volume fraction measured with cardiac computed tomography represents a new approach to the clinical assessment of diffuse myocardial fibrosis by evaluating the distribution of iodinated contrast.

Magnetic resonance imaging using gadolinium-based contrast agents

The purpose of this article was to review the basic properties of available gadolinium-based magnetic resonance contrast agents, discuss their fundamental differences, and explore common and evolving applications of gadolinium-based magnetic resonance contrast throughout the body excluding the central nervous system. A more specific aim of this article was to explore novel uses of these gadolinium-based contrast agents and applications where a particular agent has been demonstrated to behave differently or be better suited for certain applications than the other contrast agents in this class.

Cardiac MRI for myocardial ischemia

Proper assessment of the physiologic impact of coronary artery stenosis on the LV myocardium can affect patient prognosis and treatment decisions. Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (CMR) assesses myocardial perfusion by imaging the myocardium during a first-pass transit of an intravenous gadolinium bolus, with spatial and temporal resolution substantially higher than nuclear myocardial perfusion imaging. Coupled with late gadolinium enhancement (LGE) imaging for infarction during the same imaging session, CMR with vasodilating stress perfusion imaging can qualitatively and quantitatively assess the myocardial extent of hypoperfusion from coronary stenosis independent of infarcted myocardium. This approach has been validated experimentally, and multiple clinical trials have established its diagnostic robustness when compared to stress single-photon emission computed tomography. In specialized centers, dobutamine stress CMR has been shown to have incremental diagnostic value above stress echocardiography due to its high imaging quality and ability to image the heart with no restriction of imaging window. This paper reviews the technical aspects, diagnostic utility, prognostic values, challenges to clinical adaptation, and future developments of stress CMR imaging.

Baseline cardiac magnetic resonance imaging versus baseline endomyocardial biopsy for the prediction of left ventricular reverse remodeling and prognosis in response to therapy in patients with idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy

Endomyocardial biopsy (EMB) and late gadolinium enhancement cardiovascular magnetic resonance (LGE-CMR) imaging performed at baseline are both used to evaluate the extent of myocardial fibrosis. However, no study has directly compared the effectiveness of these diagnostic tools in the prediction of left ventricular reverse remodeling (LVRR) and prognosis in response to therapy in patients with idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy (IDCM). Seventy-five patients with newly diagnosed IDCM who were undergoing optimal therapy were assessed at baseline using LGE-CMR imaging and EMB; the former measured LGE area and the latter measured collagen volume fraction (CVF) as possible predictive indices of LVRR and cardiac event-free survival. Among all the baseline primary candidate factors with P < 0.2 as per univariate analysis, multivariate analysis indicated that only LGE area was an independent predictor of subsequent LVRR (β = 0.44; 95 % confidence interval (CI) 0.87–2.53; P < 0.001), as indicated by decreasing left ventricular end-systolic volume index over the 1-year follow-up. Kaplan–Meier curves indicated significantly lower cardiac event-free survival rates in patients with LGE at baseline than in patients without (P < 0.01). By contrast, there was no significant difference in prognosis between patients with CVF values above (severe fibrosis) and below (mild fibrosis) the median of 4.9 %. Cox proportional hazard analysis showed that LGE area was an independent predictor of subsequent cardiac events (hazard ratio 1.06; 95 % CI 1.02–1.10; P ≤ 0.01). The degree of myocardial fibrosis estimated by baseline LGE-CMR imaging, but not that estimated by baseline EMB, can predict LVRR and cardiac event-free survival in response to therapy in patients with newly diagnosed IDCM.

Advanced Cardiac MR Imaging for Myocardial Characterization and Quantification: T1 Mapping

Magnetic resonance as an imaging modality provides an excellent soft tissue differentiation, which is an ideal choice for cardiac imaging. Cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) allows myocardial tissue characterization, as well as comprehensive evaluation of the structures. Although late gadolinium enhancement after injection of the gadolinium extracellular contrast agent has further extended our ability to characterize the myocardial tissue, it also has limitations in the quantification of enhanced myocardial tissue pathology, and the detection of diffuse myocardial disease, which is not easily recognized by enhancement contrast. Recently, the remarkable advances in CMR technique, such as T1 mapping, which can quantitatively evaluate myocardial status, showed potentials to overcome limitations of existing CMR sequences and to expand the application of CMR. This article will review the technical and clinical points to be considered in the practical use of pre- and post-contrast T1 mapping.

Contrast-enhanced MRI of murine myocardial infarction - part II

Mouse models are increasingly used to study the pathophysiology of myocardial infarction in vivo. In this area, MRI has become the gold standard imaging modality, because it combines high spatial and temporal resolution functional imaging with a large variety of methods to generate soft tissue contrast. In addition, (target-specific) MRI contrast agents can be employed to visualize different processes in the cascade of events following myocardial infarction. Here, the MRI sequence has a decisive role in the detection sensitivity of a contrast agent. However, a straightforward translation of clinically available protocols for human cardiac imaging to mice is not feasible, because of the small size of the mouse heart and its extremely high heart rate. This has stimulated intense research in the development of cardiac MRI protocols specifically tuned to the mouse with regard to timing parameters, acquisition strategies, and ECG- and respiratory-triggering methods to find an optimal trade-off between sensitivity, scan time, and image quality. In this review, a detailed analysis is given of the pros and cons of different mouse cardiac MR imaging methodologies and their application in contrast-enhanced MRI of myocardial infarction.

Stress perfusion imaging using cardiovascular magnetic resonance: a review

Stress perfusion CMR can provide both excellent diagnostic and important prognostic information in the context of a comprehensive assessment of cardiac anatomy and function. This coupled with the high spatial resolution, and the lack of both attenuation artefacts and ionising radiation, make CMR stress perfusion imaging a highly attractive stress imaging modality. It is now in routine use in many centres, and shows promise in evaluating patients with clinical problems beyond those of epicardial coronary disease.

Assessment of myocardial fibrosis with cardiovascular magnetic resonance

Diffuse interstitial or replacement myocardial fibrosis is a common feature of a broad variety of cardiomyopathies. Myocardial fibrosis leads to impaired cardiac diastolic and systolic function and is related to adverse cardiovascular events. Cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR) may uniquely characterize the extent of replacement fibrosis and may have prognostic value in various cardiomyopathies. Myocardial longitudinal relaxation time mapping is an emerging technique that could improve CMR's diagnostic accuracy, especially for interstitial diffuse myocardial fibrosis. As such, CMR could be integrated in the monitoring and therapeutic management of a large number of patients. This review summarizes the advantages and limitations of CMR for the assessment of myocardial fibrosis.

MDCT of the myocardium: a new contribution to ischemic heart disease

RATIONALE AND OBJECTIVES

Despite the progress made in diagnosis and treatment, cardiovascular diseases remain the main cause of death worldwide.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Multidetector row computed tomography (MDCT) provides several diagnostic insights, namely assessment of coronary artery anatomy and measurement of left ventricular volume and function. The ability of CT to show myocardial infarcted areas as an enhanced territory was described in the late 1970s in an animal model.

RESULTS

This method found a second wind with the arrival of MDCT technology that led to its clinical application. Several authors describe the ability of MDCT to assess myocardial injury both in animals and humans. The MDCT assessment of myocardial late enhancement is based on the same principle as delayed enhancement MRI.

CONCLUSIONS

The aim of this review is to cover the technical aspects of cardiac MDCT in assessing the myocardium and its potential in diagnosing ischemic heart disease.

Highly accelerated cardiovascular MR imaging using many channel technology: concepts and clinical applications

Cardiovascular magnetic resonance imaging (CVMRI) is of proven clinical value in the non-invasive imaging of cardiovascular diseases. CVMRI requires rapid image acquisition, but acquisition speed is fundamentally limited in conventional MRI. Parallel imaging provides a means for increasing acquisition speed and efficiency. However, signal-to-noise (SNR) limitations and the limited number of receiver channels available on most MR systems have in the past imposed practical constraints, which dictated the use of moderate accelerations in CVMRI. High levels of acceleration, which were unattainable previously, have become possible with many-receiver MR systems and many-element, cardiac-optimized RF-coil arrays. The resulting imaging speed improvements can be exploited in a number of ways, ranging from enhancement of spatial and temporal resolution to efficient whole heart coverage to streamlining of CVMRI work flow. In this review, examples of these strategies are provided, following an outline of the fundamentals of the highly accelerated imaging approaches employed in CVMRI. Topics discussed include basic principles of parallel imaging; key requirements for MR systems and RF-coil design; practical considerations of SNR management, supported by multi-dimensional accelerations, 3D noise averaging and high field imaging; highly accelerated clinical state-of-the art cardiovascular imaging applications spanning the range from SNR-rich to SNR-limited; and current trends and future directions.

Cardiovascular MRI for stem cell therapy

Stem cell therapy may provide an alternative therapeutic option for severe congestive heart failure (CHF). Despite the promise generated by this novel approach, precise in vivo monitoring of the transplanted cells and of subsequent myocardial restoration remains a challenge. The development of a sensitive, noninvasive imaging technology to track stem cells while assessing cardiac function is critical to monitor therapeutic efficacy. In vivo cardiovascular MRI of stem cells is an emerging application to identify, localize, and monitor stem cells while simultaneously evaluating the restoration of the injured myocardium following stem cell therapy. Furthermore, advances in scanner technology, pulse sequence design, and associated hardware have resulted in real-time guidance of catheter-based intervention to deliver cells accurately to the regions of myocardial injury. These capabilities have positioned MRI as the primary comprehensive imaging modality to monitor cell therapy.

Low Tube Voltage Improves Computed Tomography Imaging of Delayed Myocardial Contrast Enhancement in an Experimental Acute Myocardial Infarction Model

OBJECTIVE

We sought to evaluate the influence of tube voltage on the visualization of acute myocardial infarction (MI) in cardiac multislice spiral computed tomography (MSCT).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Acute MI was induced in 12 domestic pigs by a 45-minute balloon occlusion of the left anterior descending artery. Delayed enhancement magnetic resonance imaging was performed 15 minutes after the injection of 0.2 mmol/kg Gd-DTPA. On the same day, retrospectively ECG-gated MSCT was performed at 120, 100, and 80 kV (16x0.75mm, 550mAseff.) 15 minutes after the injection of 140 mL of iopromide (1 g/iodine/kg). The pigs were killed and the hearts were excised and stained with 2,3,5-triphenyltetrazolium chloride. The area of acute MI, contrast-to-noise ratio (CNR), and percent signal difference were compared among the different imaging techniques by applying Bland-Altman plots and 2-way analysis of variance.

RESULTS

On MSCT at 120, 100, and 80 kV, the respective mean acute MI sizes were 18.4+/-11.4%, 19.3+/-11.5%, and 20.5+/-11.6%. The mean MI sizes were 20.8+/-12.2% and 20.1+/-12.4% on magnetic resonance imaging and 2,3,5-triphenyltetrazolium chloride staining. Analysis of variance did not show any statistically significant differences between the different techniques with respect to the size of acute MI (P=0.9880). Comparing the different kV settings on MSCT, the highest percent signal difference (74.7+/-12.1%) and the highest CNR (6.7+/-1.8) between infarcted and healthy remote myocardium were achieved at 80 kV.

CONCLUSIONS

When compared with routine scan protocols, low tube voltage MSCT allows for the assessment of the MI size with an improved CNR and contrast resolution. This technique appears to be advantageous for assessing myocardial viability from contrast enhanced late-phase MSCT.

MR imaging in assessing cardiovascular interventions and myocardial injury

Performing an MR-guided endovascular intervention requires (1) real-time tracking and guidance of catheters/guide wires to the target, (2) high-resolution images of the target and its surroundings in order to define the extent of the target, (3) performing a therapeutic procedure (delivery of stent or injection of gene or cells) and (4) evaluating the outcome of the therapeutic procedure. The combination of X-ray and MR imaging (XMR) in a single suite was designed for new interventional procedures. MR contrast media can be used to delineate myocardial infarcts and microvascular obstruction, thereby defining the target for local delivery of therapeutic agents under MR-guidance. Iron particles, or gadolinium- or dysprosium-chelates are mixed with the soluble injectates or stem cells in order to track intramyocardial delivery and distribution. Preliminary results show that genes encoded for vascular endothelial and fibroblast growth factor and cells are effective in promoting angiogenesis, arteriogenesis, perfusion and LV function. Angiogenic growth factors, genes and cells administered under MR-guided minimally invasive catheter-based procedures will open up new avenues in treating end-stage ischemic heart disease. The optimum dose of the therapeutic agents, delivery devices and real-time imaging techniques to guide the delivery are currently the subject of ongoing research. The aim of this review is to (1) provide an updated review of experiences using MR imaging to guide transcatheter therapy, (2) address the potential of cardiovascular magnetic resonance (MR) imaging and MR contrast media in assessing myocardial injury at a molecular level and labeling cells and (3) illustrate the applicability of the non-invasive MR imaging in the field of angiogenic therapies through recent clinical and experimental publications.