The role of nanobacteria in urologic disease

Nanomaterials: a review of emerging contaminants with potential health or environmental impact

Nanotechnologies have been advantageous in many sectors and gaining much concern due to the unique physical, chemical and biological properties of nanomaterials (NMs). We have surveyed peer-reviewed publications related to "nanotechnology", "NMs", "NMs water treatment", "NMs air treatment", and "NMs environmental risk" in the last 23 years. We found that most of the research work is focused on developing novel applications for NMs and new products with peculiar features. In contrast, there are relatively few of publications concerning NMs as environmental contaminants relative to that for NMs applications. Thus, we devoted this review for NMs as emerging environmental contaminants. The definition and classification of NMs will be presented first to demonstrate the importance of unifying the NMs definition. The information provided here should facilitate the detection, control, and regulation of NMs contaminants in the environment. The high surface-area-to-volume ratio and the reactivity of NMs contaminants cause the prediction of the chemical properties and potential toxicities of NPs to be extremely difficult; therefore, we found that there are marked knowledge gaps in the fate, impact, toxicity, and risk of NMs. Consequently, developing and modifying extraction methods, detection tools, and characterization technologies are essential for complete risk assessment of NMs contaminants in the environment. This will help also in setting regulations and standards for releasing and handling NMs as there are no specific regulations. Finally, the integrated treatment technologies are necessary for the removal of NMs contaminants in water. Also, membrane technology is recommended for NMs remediation in air.

Tetracycline attenuates calcifying nanoparticles-induced renal epithelial injury through suppression of inflammation, oxidative stress, and apoptosis in rat models

Background

Calcifying nanoparticles (CNPs) has been associated with the occurrence and development of kidney stones, but the exact mechanism is not clear. This study aimed to establish a rat model of CNP-induced renal epithelial injury and assess the efficacy of tetracycline in preventing this injury.

Methods

Kidney stones from patients after percutaneous nephrolithotomy (PCNL) were collected to isolate and culture CNPs. Thirty Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into three groups: the sham group (G1), the CNP group (G2), and the CNP + tetracycline group (G3). Rats in G2 and G3 were given an intravenous injection of CNPs via the tail vein, while rats in G1 were given saline. Meanwhile, rats in G3 were given tetracycline by gavage twice a day at a dose of 25 mg/kg. After 8 weeks, the 24-h urine of all rats was collected, and all rats were sacrificed to obtain blood and kidneys.

Results

The results revealed that in G2, activities of antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase and catalase were significantly lower than those in G1, while malondialdehyde activity in G2 was significantly higher than that in G1 and both of them were inhibited by tetracycline co-treatment in G3. CNPs significantly increased expression of inflammatory cytokines, including monocyte chemotactic protein 1 and interleukin 6, which were largely alleviated in G3. CNPs significantly increased TUNEL-positive cells and the apoptosis activity of Bcl2-associated X protein but decreased B-cell lymphoma-2 level compared with that in G1, and was limited by tetracycline co-treatment in G3. Furthermore, CNPs led to notable renal tubular epithelial cell damage, hyaline cast formation, desquamation, swelling, vacuolization in histology, all of which were alleviated by tetracycline.

Conclusions

Tetracycline can attenuate CNP-induced renal epithelial injury through suppression of inflammation, oxidative stress, and apoptosis.

Quantification of a cell culture contaminant using 16S rDNA

In this study, we identified a "black dot"-like cell culture contaminant as a species belonging to the genus of Pusillimonas using 16S rDNA sequencing. Among all antibiotics tested, a combinatorial treatment of ampicillin and gentamicin both at 100 µg/mL was able to eliminate this contaminant. The contaminant was then visualized by fluorescence microscopy using propidium iodide staining and was found inside the cytosol of contaminated A549 cells. To characterize the efficacy of antibiotics for contaminant removal, we devised a quantitative method to determine the average number of 16S rDNA copies associated with a single A549 cell, which is directly proportional to the average number of contaminant per A549 cell. By using primers specific to the 16S rDNA sequence of the contaminant, we were able to estimate contaminants per single contaminated cell using both qPCR-based relative and absolute quantification.

Comparison of polymerase chain reaction and immunologic methods for the detection of nanobacterial infection in type-III prostatitis

OBJECTIVE

To compare the results of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and immunologic methods for the detection of nanobacteria (NB) in the expressed prostatic secretions (EPSs) of patients with type-III prostatitis.

METHODS

In total, 150 patients with type-III prostatitis for whom conventional clinical treatment had failed were selected from September 2009 to April 2010. The EPS of each patient was divided into 3 parts, which were used for PCR analysis, indirect immunofluorescence staining (IIFS), and culture and subsequent indirect immunofluorescence staining (CIIFS).

RESULTS

PCR analysis has a higher sensitivity than IIFS for the detection of NB in EPSs. Of 83 CIIFS-positive EPS samples, 79 (95.2%) were positive by PCR. Of 67 EPS samples that were negative by CIIFS, 60 (89.6%) were negative by PCR. The sensitivity of PCR for the detection of NB compared with the CIIFS method was 95.2%, with a specificity of 89.6%. The positive predictive value was 91.9%, and the negative predictive value was 93.8%. A comparative evaluation showed no statistically significant difference between PCR and CIIFS in the detection of NB in EPSs. A strong agreement in the positive and the negative results obtained by PCR and CIIFS for NB detection was found for all EPS samples.

CONCLUSION

PCR analysis has a higher sensitivity than IIFS for NB detection in type-III prostatitis. PCR can detect nanobacterial infection in type-III prostatitis equally well as CIIFS and offers significant advantages for the rapid, simple, and economical detection of nanobacterial infection in type-III prostatitis.

Etiology of chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome: psychoimmunoneurendocrine dysfunction (PINE syndrome) or just a really bad infection?

PURPOSE

To review the etiology and pathogenesis of chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome (CP/CPPS).

METHODS

A literature review for the years 1985-2012 was performed using the MEDLINE database of the United States National Library of Medicine.

RESULTS

The evidence for ongoing infection in men with CP/CPPS is lacking. However, men with CP/CPPS are twice as likely to have had a sexually transmitted disease (STD), and bacteria from men with CP/CPPS may be phenotypically different from those that cause cystitis or acute prostatitis. Evidence continues to support an alteration in both the afferent and efferent autonomic nervous systems. Functional brain imaging suggests changes in the gray matter as well as the importance of the anterior insula and anterior cingulated gyrus in pain processing. Neural function can be modulated by immune and endocrine factors. Alterations in cytokine function and autoimmunity appear to play a role in the immune dysfunction. Alterations in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis can mediate the endocrine effects, similar to many other chronic pain conditions. Genetics may play a role in who may develop chronic pain after an initial insult. Finally, any biological changes must then be processed through the psychosocial environment, including the tendency to catastrophize, and degree of spousal support, to produce a given individual patient's pain experience.

CONCLUSIONS

Infection with atypical bacteria or sequelae of an STD may lead to CP/CPPS in some men. Such a biological insult in the context of alterations in psychoimmunoneurendocrine factors produces the chronic pain experience.

Isolation, cultivation and identification of nanobacteria from placental calcification

OBJECTIVE

The etiology of placental calcification (PC) is lack of research. To detect the bacterial infection mechanisms for PC, the experiment of isolating, culturing and identifying the nanobacteria in PC was done.

METHOD

The calcified placental tissues from 18 confirmed PC cases with normal placental tissue samples from 18 cases were studied by transmission electron microscopy (TEM), special nanobacterial culture methods, and identification of 16S rRNA sequence.

RESULT

Under transmission electron microscope (TEM), Nanobacteria-like particles (NLP) in extra-cellular matrix (ECM) of calcified placental tissues were found, they were 50-500 nm in diameter, existed aggregation, among hydroxyapatite (HAP) crystals. Isolation and culture of NLP from the calcified tissues with methods described for nanobacteria were successful. All calcified placental tissue samples showed white granular deposition, which were firmly attached to the bottom of the culture tubes visible to the naked eyes. In the control group they could not be seen. According to 16S rRNA gene sequences analysis and was amplified adopting PCR and obtained 1407 bp fragment. Submit to GenBank after sequencing with accession number JN029830.

CONCLUSION

Indicating that nanobacteria infection is related with placental calcification.

Nanobacteria may be linked to calcification in placenta

AIMS

Placental calcification is a common pathologic condition in obstetrics. To detect the bacteria infection mechanisms for calcification, an experiment was performed to isolate, culture, and identify the nanobacteria in placental calcification.

METHOD

Sixteen cases of placental calcification of pregnant women were collected for the purpose of the isolation of nanobacteria, cultivation, and identification of 16S rDNA sequence.

RESULT

Under transmission electron microscope, novel oval-shape nanobacteria-like particles (NLP) in extracellular matrix of calcified placenta tissues were found with 50-500 nm in diameter, and among hydroxyapatite crystals aggregation existed. After about 4 weeks of culturing and isolating NLP from these calcified tissues, all calcified placental tissue samples and one adjacent tissue of calcified placental tissue samples showed white granular depositions, which were firmly attached to the bottom of the culture tubes and visible to the naked eyes. In the control group they could not be seen. After PCR was amplified a 1407-bp fragment was obtained and submitted to GenBank after sequencing with accession number JN029830. The 16S rDNA sequence homology between the isolation strain and strain nanobacteria (X98418) was 92% in GenBank.

CONCLUSION

For the first time isolated, cultured, and identified nanobacteria in placental calcification indicated that nanobacteria infection is related to placental calcification.

Association between calcifying nanoparticles and placental calcification

BACKGROUND

The purpose of this study was to examine the possible contribution of calcifying nanoparticles to the pathogenesis of placental calcification.

METHODS

Calcified placental tissues and distal tissue samples were collected from 36 confirmed placental calcification cases. In addition, 20 normal placental tissue samples were obtained as a control group. All the tissue samples were cultured using special nanobacterial culture methods. The cultured calcifying nanoparticles were examined by transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and their growth was monitored by optical density (OD) at a wavelength of 650 nm. 16S rRNA gene expression of the cultured calcifying nanoparticles was also isolated and sequenced.

RESULTS

Novel calcifying nanoparticles wrapped with electron-dense shells between 50 nm to 500 nm in diameter were observed in the extracellular matrix of calcified placental tissues. They were detected in placental villi and hydroxyapatite crystals, and contained "nucleic acid-like materials". After isolation and four weeks of culture, 28 of 36 calcified placental tissue samples showed white granular precipitates attached to the bottom of the culture tubes. OD(650) measurements indicated that the precipitates from the calcified placental tissues were able to grow in culture, whereas no such precipitates from the control tissues were observed. The 16S rRNA genes were isolated from the cultured calcifying nanoparticles and calcified placental tissues, and their gene sequencing results implied that calcifying nanoparticles were novel nanobacteria (GenBank JF823648).

CONCLUSION

Our results suggest that these novel calcifying nanoparticles may play a role in placental calcification.

Management of urinary tract infections associated with nephrolithiasis

Nephrolithiasis is a common clinical entity, and the incidence of renal stones appears to be increasing in the United States. Infection with uropathogens that produce urease can lead to the development of stones (infection stones), which serve as a continued source of recurrent infection and can lead to chronic kidney disease. Other than treating infection, medical management has little role in the treatment of infection stones; complete eradication of the stones with percutaneous nephrolithotomy or extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy is required. Stones of metabolic origin can cause obstruction in the ureter and predispose to the development of urinary tract infection (UTI). Recognizing obstruction and initiating prompt drainage of the collecting system is important in the successful management of nephrolithiasis complicated by UTI. These patients are often at high risk of infection with an antimicrobial-resistant pathogen, so careful consideration of antimicrobial therapy is required, especially for patients who present with severe sepsis.

Detection of nanobacteria in patients with chronic prostatitis and vaginitis by reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction

PURPOSE

We aimed to investigate the detection of nanobacteria (NB) from expressed prostatic secretions (EPS) in patients with category III chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome (CP/CPPS) and from vaginal swabs in patients with vaginitis by reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and to evaluate the association between NB and Neisseria gonorrhea, Chlamydia trachomatis, Ureaplasma urealyticum (U. urealyticum), Mycoplasma hominis, Trichomonas vaginalis, and Mycoplasma genitalium.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A group of 11 men attending a specialized CP/CPPS clinic and a group of 157 women who reported symptoms of lower genital tract infection were enrolled in this study. NB were detected by RT-PCR. A Seeplex Sexually Transmitted Disease Detection assay (Seegene Inc., Seoul, Korea) was used that could detect DNA for 6 types of sexually transmitted pathogens.

RESULTS

In EPS samples, the detection rate of NB in patients with CP/CPPS was 9.1%, and 9 (5.7%) of 157 vaginitis patients showed positive results in RT-PCR for NB in vaginal swabs. Associations observed among the 7 microorganisms included 6 (54.5%) patients who tested positive on EPS and 75 (47.8%) patients who tested positive on vaginal swabs. Five patients with vaginitis were found to have monoinfection of NB (6.7%).

CONCLUSIONS

We found that conventional RT-PCR for NB was rapid, simple, low in cost, and easily available for the detection of NB, and that NB may be a possible etiological factor for vaginitis and CP/CPPS. The prevalence of U. urealyticum among the four patients with NB coinfection was 75%; the presence of U. urealyticum might therefore raise suspicion for nanobacterial infection.

Nanobacteria: a possible etiology for type III prostatitis

PURPOSE

Nanobacteria are thought to be a pathopoiesis bacterium in urological disease. We observed pathological changes in nanobacteria infected prostates in Sprague-Dawley(R) rats and investigated the possible etiological relationships of nanobacteria and type III prostatitis.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We randomized 40 adult male Sprague-Dawley rats each to the control and model groups. Rat prostate infection models were reproduced by infusing nanobacteria suspension transurethrally. Rats were sacrificed 1, 2, 4 and 8 weeks later, respectively. Prostatic pathology, and the cytokines interleukin-1beta and tumor necrosis factor-alpha were assessed. Nanobacteria isolation, culture and characterization were also analyzed.

RESULTS

In model rats we observed prostatic acute inflammatory changes 1 to 2 weeks after nanobacteria infusion and chronic inflammatory changes after 4 weeks. At 8 weeks we noted microcalculous formation in the prostatic glandular cavity in 7 of the 10 model rats, which was not seen in controls. Interleukin-1beta and tumor necrosis factor-alpha in prostatic tissues were higher in model rats than in controls at different time points (p <0.01). In model rats interleukin-1beta and tumor necrosis factor-alpha were higher 2 weeks after infusion than at 1, 4 and 8 weeks (p <0.05). Prostatic tissue was nanobacteria positive in 35 model rats and in 0 controls.

CONCLUSIONS

Nanobacteria may be an important etiological factor for type III prostatitis.

Pathological calcification and replicating calcifying-nanoparticles: general approach and correlation

Calcification, a phenomenon often regarded by pathologists little more than evidence of cell death, is becoming recognized to be important in the dynamics of a variety of diseases from which millions of beings suffer in all ages. In calcification, all that is needed for crystal formation to start is nidi (nuclei) and an environment of available dissolved components at or near saturation concentrations, along with the absence of inhibitors for crystal formation. Calcifying nanoparticles (CNP) are the first calcium phosphate mineral containing particles isolated from human blood and were detected in numerous pathologic calcification related diseases. Controversy and critical role of CNP as nidi and triggering factor in human pathologic calcification are discussed.

Nanomaterials and nanoparticles: sources and toxicity

This review is presented as a common foundation for scientists interested in nanoparticles, their origin,activity, and biological toxicity. It is written with the goal of rationalizing and informing public health concerns related to this sometimes-strange new science of "nano," while raising awareness of nanomaterials' toxicity among scientists and manufacturers handling them.We show that humans have always been exposed to tiny particles via dust storms, volcanic ash, and other natural processes, and that our bodily systems are well adapted to protect us from these potentially harmful intruders. There ticuloendothelial system, in particular, actively neutralizes and eliminates foreign matter in the body,including viruses and nonbiological particles. Particles originating from human activities have existed for millennia, e.g., smoke from combustion and lint from garments, but the recent development of industry and combustion-based engine transportation has profoundly increased an thropogenic particulate pollution. Significantly, technological advancement has also changed the character of particulate pollution, increasing the proportion of nanometer-sized particles--"nanoparticles"--and expanding the variety of chemical compositions. Recent epidemiological studies have shown a strong correlation between particulate air pollution levels, respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, various cancers, and mortality. Adverse effects of nanoparticles on human health depend on individual factors such as genetics and existing disease, as well as exposure, and nanoparticle chemistry, size, shape,agglomeration state, and electromagnetic properties. Animal and human studies show that inhaled nanoparticles are less efficiently removed than larger particles by the macrophage clearance mechanisms in the lungs, causing lung damage, and that nanoparticles can translocate through the circulatory, lymphatic, and nervous systems to many tissues and organs, including the brain. The key to understanding the toxicity of nanoparticles is that their minute size, smaller than cells and cellular organelles, allows them to penetrate these basic biological structures, disrupting their normal function.Examples of toxic effects include tissue inflammation, and altered cellular redox balance toward oxidation, causing abnormal function or cell death. The manipulation of matter at the scale of atoms,"nanotechnology," is creating many new materials with characteristics not always easily predicted from current knowledge. Within the nearly limitless diversity of these materials, some happen to be toxic to biological systems, others are relatively benign, while others confer health benefits. Some of these materials have desirable characteristics for industrial applications, as nanostructured materials often exhibit beneficial properties, from UV absorbance in sunscreen to oil-less lubrication of motors.A rational science-based approach is needed to minimize harm caused by these materials, while supporting continued study and appropriate industrial development. As current knowledge of the toxicology of "bulk" materials may not suffice in reliably predicting toxic forms of nanoparticles,ongoing and expanded study of "nanotoxicity" will be necessary. For nanotechnologies with clearly associated health risks, intelligent design of materials and devices is needed to derive the benefits of these new technologies while limiting adverse health impacts. Human exposure to toxic nanoparticles can be reduced through identifying creation-exposure pathways of toxins, a study that may someday soon unravel the mysteries of diseases such as Parkinson's and Alzheimer's. Reduction in fossil fuel combustion would have a large impact on global human exposure to nanoparticles, as would limiting deforestation and desertification.While nanotoxicity is a relatively new concept to science, this review reveals the result of life's long history of evolution in the presence of nanoparticles, and how the human body, in particular, has adapted to defend itself against nanoparticulate intruders.

Evaluation of chronic pelvic pain syndrome in men: is it chronic prostatitis?

Chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome (CP/CPPS) is not well understood. The mechanisms involved in its pathophysiology have yet to be fully elucidated. Men with CP/CPPS suffer from symptoms that may not necessarily be linked to concurrent prostate involvement. Recent literature embraces the notion that symptoms may result from complex interactions, and studies have looked at other disease syndromes in an attempt to reveal the etiology of the disease. The title of this article suggests an organ-centric etiology to explain symptoms of patients with this disorder, but this does not seem to be the case. In an attempt to answer the question, this article examines possible etiologies for CP/CPPS in which the prostate may be involved and discusses evaluation strategies for patients with CP/CPPS. It seems, however, that instead of limiting our focus to the prostate, a multisystem approach to discovery and symptom control would further improve patient care.

Decreased nanobacteria levels and symptoms of nanobacteria-associated interstitial cystitis/painful bladder syndrome after tetracycline treatment

INTRODUCTION AND HYPOTHESIS

This study was designed to detect whether nanobacteria (NB) reside in urine and bladder tissue samples of patients with interstitial cystitis/painful bladder syndrome (IC/PBS) and whether antibiotic therapy targeting these organisms is effective in reducing NB levels and IC/PBS symptoms.

METHODS

Twenty-seven IC/PBS patients underwent cystoscopy. Bladder biopsies and urine samples were obtained and cultured for NB, which were identified by indirect immunofluorescent staining and transmission electron microscopy.

RESULTS

Eleven bladder samples showed growth of microbes that were identified to be similar to NB. Homologous study of the 16S ribosomal RNA gene suggested that the NB could be the pathogen. For enrolled 11 patients, NB levels decreased dramatically after tetracycline treatment, and they reported significant reduction in the severity of IC/PBS symptoms.

CONCLUSIONS

A high prevalence of NB was observed in female IC/PBS, and anti-NB treatment effectively improved the symptoms, which suggest that NB may cause some cases of IC/PBS.

Detection of nanobacteria infection in type III prostatitis

OBJECTIVES

To investigate the relationship between nanobacterial infection and type III prostatitis. The etiology of type III prostatitis remains unclear to date, although the recently discovered nanobacteria (NB) have been implicated in this disease.

METHODS

A total of 48 patients with chronic pelvic pain syndrome for whom conventional therapy had failed were selected and randomly divided into two groups, one receiving anti-NB treatment and the other receiving a placebo. The NB were isolated and cultured from expressed prostatic secretions and urine samples before and after treatment. The morphologic features were recorded and 16s rRNA gene expression was determined. The curative effect was evaluated by the NB-positive rate and symptomatic changes using the National Institutes of Health Chronic Prostatitis Symptom Index.

RESULTS

After anti-NB treatment, the NB-positive rates had decreased from 62.5% to 16.7% in the expressed prostatic secretions and from 12.5% to 0% in the urine samples after prostatic massage (P <0.001). In the patients receiving a placebo, the positive rates had no obvious change in either the expressed prostatic secretions or the urine samples after prostatic massage (P >0.05). The NB were coccoid or coccobacillary and clustered in a diameter of 100 to 500 nm. The BLAST result revealed that the 16s rRNA gene sequence from the NB in the patients with chronic pelvic pain syndrome was 97%, similar to that of the known NB with identity (97%). After anti-NB treatment, the Chronic Prostatitis Symptom Index scores decreased significantly. In contrast, no change in the Chronic Prostatitis Symptom Index scores was seen after placebo treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of our study have shown that nanobacterial infection might be an important etiologic factor of type III prostatitis. Anti-NB treatment could be an effective therapy against refractory type III prostatitis.

Pathogenesis of renal calculi

Recent reports suggest that kidney stone disease prevalence is increasing. Despite significant treatment advances, the inciting factor and sequence of events leading to kidney stone formation remain elusive; however, recent efforts to understand the pathogenesis of nephrolithiasis have led to a delineation of the human surgical anatomy, histopathology, and metabolic factors in a variety of kidney stone formers. This article reviews the fundamental concepts of calculus formation, and the leading theories of stone pathogenesis, focusing on recent data from human papillary and renal cortical biopsies in stone formers that provide evidence for the role of Randall's plaque in kidney stone disease pathogenesis. These data suggest there are individual stone-forming phenotypes with unique surgical anatomy, histology, and metabolic profiles.

Incidence and significance of prostatic stones in men with chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome

OBJECTIVES

Prostatic calcification is common in asymptomatic elderly men. However, young men with chronic pelvic pain syndrome (CPPS) often have significantly calcified prostates. We studied the incidence and significance of prostatic calcification in men with CPPS.

METHODS

From July 2005 to August 2006, 130 new patients with CPPS were seen at our clinic. Of these 130 patients, 47 underwent transrectal ultrasonography. Prostatic calcification correlated with symptoms (National Institutes of Health chronic prostatitis symptom index score), examination findings, and culture results. The variables were compared using the Student t test, Wilcoxon unpaired test, or chi-square test.

RESULTS

The 47 men who had undergone transrectal ultrasonography had symptoms identical to those who had not but were older (range 46.1 to 41.6 years, P = 0.02) and had had symptoms longer (median 60 versus 12 months, P = 0.0001). Of the 47 patients, 22 (47%) had significant calcification. The symptoms with or without calcification were identical (chronic prostatitis symptom score 23.7 versus 23.9). Men with calcification had had symptoms longer (median 84 versus 27 months, P = 0.05) but were similar in age (49 versus 45 years, P = 0.21) and had a similar prostate size (21.7 cm3 for both groups). Men with calcification were less likely to have pelvic floor tenderness (50% versus 85%, P = 0.03) but were more likely to have bacteria in the prostatic fluid (P = 0.05) and had a higher median white blood cell count (3.5 versus 0 white blood cells per high power field, P = 0.058).

CONCLUSIONS

Prostatic calcification is common in patients with CPPS and is associated with greater inflammation, bacterial colonization, and symptom duration. Pelvic floor spasm is more common in patients without calcification. This might be an important parameter with which to stratify clinical trials.

Search for microbial signatures within human and microbial calcifications using soft x-ray spectromicroscopy

BACKGROUND

The origin of advanced arterial and renal calcification remains poorly understood. Self-replicating, calcifying entities have been detected and isolated from calcified human tissues, including blood vessels and kidney stones, and are referred to as nanobacteria. However, the microbiologic nature of putative nanobacteria continues to be debated, in part because of the difficulty in discriminating biomineralized microbes from minerals nucleated on anything else (eg, macromolecules, cell membranes). To address this controversy, the use of techniques capable of characterizing the organic and mineral content of these self-replicated structures at the submicrometer scale would be beneficial.

METHODS

Calcifying gram-negative bacteria (Caulobacter crescentus, Ramlibacter tataouinensis) used as references and self-replicating calcified nanoparticles cultured from human samples of calcified aneurysms were examined using a scanning transmission x-ray microscope (STXM) at the Advanced Light Source at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. This microscope uses a monochromated and focused synchrotron x-ray beam (80-2,200 eV) to yield microscopic and spectroscopic information on both organic compounds and minerals at the 25 nm scale.

RESULTS

High-spatial and energy resolution near-edge x-ray absorption fine structure (NEXAFS) spectra indicative of elemental speciation acquired at the C K-edge, N K-edge, and Ca L(2,3)-edge on a single-cell scale from calcified C. crescentus and R. tataouinensis displayed unique spectral signatures different from that of nonbiologic hydroxyapatite (Ca(10)(PO(4))(6)(OH)(2)). Further, preliminary NEXAFS measurements of calcium, carbon, and nitrogen functional groups of cultured calcified nanoparticles from humans revealed evidence of organics, likely peptides or proteins, specifically associated with hydroxyapatite minerals.

CONCLUSION

Using NEXAFS at the 25 nm spatial scale, it is possible to define a biochemical signature for cultured calcified bacteria, including proteins, polysaccharides, nucleic acids, and hydroxyapatite. These preliminary studies suggest that nanoparticles isolated from human samples share spectroscopic characteristics with calcified proteins.

The risk of urolithiasis recurrence may be reduced with anti-nanobacterial therapy

Urolithiasis is a common disorder responsible for serious human suffering and economic cost to society. Approximately 13% of men and 7% of women in the United States will be diagnosed with urolithiasis at some time in their lives with a recurrence rate of more than 50% in 5 years. Even if some risk factors are defined for stone formation, none of them can fully explain the etiopathogenesis. A controversial pathogen bacteria called 'nanobacteria' (NB) has been associated with several diseases including stone formation in some studies. It is thought to be the nidi for the stone formation after its' isolation from the renal stones and the occurrence of the stone after the percutaneus renal injection of NB. The clinical trials demonstrated that the eradication of NB prevented the calcifications in coronary arteries and prostate with an acceptable level by performing a novel combination therapy called 'ComET' which comprises a tetracycline antibiotic, nutraceutical and EDTA. Based on these findings, we hypothesize that the risk of urolithiasis recurrence may be reduced with combined anti-nanobacterial therapy. Long term prospective studies should be designed for evaluating the patients with positive NB cultures. If our hypotheses can be further supported with clinical trials it may change the approach of the medical management for urolithiasis.