An overview of triple-negative breast cancer

Discovery of novel PARP1 inhibitors through computational drug design approaches

BACKGROUND

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is the most frequent malignancy in women. It is a prevalent condition, representing 15-20 % of all breast cancer cases, characterized by its aggressive subtype and unfavorable prognosis.

OBJECTIVES

The main aim of this study is to find and develop a potential novel therapeutic candidate for TNBC treatment utilizing luteolin derivatives compounds.

METHODS

In this study, we used the stable TNBC protein structure from the Protein Data Bank (PDB) and selected luteolin, a bioactive compound known for its anti-cancer properties, to design potential anti-cancer drugs using computational methods. Structural activity relationship methodologies were used to evaluate active and inactive outcomes using pass prediction scores. Furthermore, we employed in-silico methods such as ADMET, drug-likeness evaluation, DFT quantum calculations, and Frontier Molecular Orbitals (HOMO and LUMO). Afterwards, we performed molecular docking for binding affinity and molecular dynamics simulations over 200 ns to validate interactions with TNBC protein RESULTS: Our results demonstrated that the ligands DM02, DM06, DM07, and DM09 did not violate Lipinski rules, and their reduced HOMO-LUMO energy gap indicates enhanced chemical reactivity and interaction with biological targets. The drug's maximum softness and minimum hardness values showed rapid metabolism and no hepatotoxicity, carcinogenicity, skin sensitization, or aquatic toxicity. Molecular docking studies revealed that DM02 and DM09, luteolin derivatives, have the highest binding affinity with the TNBC protein (PDB ID 5HA9) and our study confirms their stable interactions with the protein, suggesting potential therapeutic agents for TNBC.

CONCLUSIONS

Our computational data suggest that Luteolin derivatives have the potential to be utilized as therapeutic agents for TNBC. However, further experimental validation is needed to validate these findings.

A nomogram for predicting overall survival in young triple-negative breast cancer patients: a population-based study

BACKGROUND

Young triple negative breast cancer (YTNBC) patients often face poor survival outcomes. Given the high-risk nature of YTNBC, there is an urgent need for tools that can accurately predict patient outcomes and guide personalized treatment strategies. Prognostic models, particularly those in the form of nomograms, have gained popularity in oncology for their ability to integrate multiple clinical variables to estimate individual patient survival. Our study aimed to investigate independent prognostic factors in YTNBC patients and develop a nomogram to predict OS, thereby helping patients choose a better therapeutic approach.

METHODS

Patients diagnosed with YTNBC between January 2010 and December 2015 from the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) database were enrolled and randomly divided into training and validation cohorts at a ratio of 7:3. Univariate and multivariate Cox analyses were conducted to identify significant factors associated with prognosis, which were then used to construct a nomogram for predicting 1-, 3-, and 5-year OS.

RESULTS

Nine survival predictors (marital status, tumor grade, AJCC stage, T stage, N stage, M stage, surgery, bone metastases, brain metastases) were selected for nomogram construction. The concordance indexes (C-index), in the training and validation cohorts were 0.749 and 0.745, respectively. The nomogram model demonstrated good calibration, and time-dependent receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves confirmed its superiority for clinical utility. Additionally, Kaplan-Meier survival curves of various independent prognostic factors validated the model.

CONCLUSIONS

The novel nomogram serves as a reliable tool for predicting survival, aiding clinicians in identifying high-risk patients and devising individualized treatments.

Phenyl boronic acid conjugated lipid nanoparticles for targeted delivery of gamma-secretase inhibitor to breast cancer cells

OBJECTIVE

The major objective of the present study is to develop and evaluate phenyl boronic acid (PBA) conjugated solid lipid nanoparticles (PBA-SUL@SLN) for the targeted delivery of sulindac (SUL) to breast cancer (BC) cells.Significance: Utilizing a dual approach that combines PBA-mediated targeting with Notch-1 pathway inhibition by SUL, the study aims to enhance therapeutic selectivity and efficacy against an aggressive BC subtype, triple negative breast cancer (TNBC), which lacks well defined molecular targets.

METHODS

The PBA-SUL@SLN formulation was prepared using emulsification-solvent evaporation method and analysed for the particle size, zeta potential, entrapment efficiency, and pH sensitive drug release. Cellular uptake studies were conducted to examine selective internalization in TNBC cells. The therapeutic efficacy was assessed by evaluating Notch-1expression modulation of epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), cancer stem cell (CSC) activity, and cytotoxic effects in TNBC cell compared to normal cells.

RESULTS

The PBA-SUL@SLN formulation exhibited an optimal particle size of (153.35 nm), a zeta potential of (22.87 mV), and an entrapment efficiency of 83.06%, with preferential drug release observed in the acidic tumor microenvironment. Increased cellular uptake in MDA-MB-231 cells led to notable downregulation of Notch-1, inhibition of epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), and potential reduction in CSC activity. Cytotoxicity assays revealed strong and selective efficacy against TNBC cells while causing minimal effects on normal cells.

CONCLUSIONS

The PBA-SUL@SLN formulation presents a promising targeted therapeutic strategy for TNBC, addressing key limitations of existing treatments.

ANP32E drives vulnerability to ATR inhibitors by inducing R-loops-dependent transcription replication conflicts in triple negative breast cancer

Oncogene-induced replicative stress (RS) drives tumor progression by disrupting genome stability, primarily through transcription-replication conflicts (TRCs), which promote R-loop accumulation and trigger the DNA damage response (DDR). In this study, we investigate the role of chromatin regulators in exacerbating TRCs and R-loop accumulation in cancer. We find that in breast cancer patients, the simultaneous upregulation of MYC and the H2A.Z-specific chaperone ANP32E correlates with increased genomic instability. Genome-wide analyses reveal that ANP32E-driven H2A.Z turnover alters RNA polymerase II processivity, leading to the accumulation of long R-loops at TRC sites. Furthermore, we show that ANP32E overexpression enhances TRC formation and activates an ATR-dependent DDR, predisposing cancer cells to R-loop-mediated genomic fragility. By exploiting the vulnerability of ANP32E-expressing cancer cells to ATR inhibitors, we find that tumors relied on this DDR pathway, whose inhibition halts their pro-metastatic capacity. These findings identify ANP32E as a key driver of TRC-induced genomic instability, indicating ATR inhibition as a potential therapeutic strategy for ANP32E-overexpressing tumors.

Red blood cell membrane-camouflaged nanocarriers for the delivery of piperlongumine to treat triple-negative breast cancer

The application of the conventional drugs for triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) treatment in chemotherapy is limited due to their intrinsic drawbacks such as short drug half-life, lack of tumor selectivity and systemic toxicity. Herein, an effective nanoparticle drug delivery system (NDDS) of red blood cell (RBC) membrane-camouflaged piperlongumine (PL)-loaded iron oxide (Fe3O4) magnetic nanoparticles (Fe3O4-PL@RBC) was rationally designed as an effective drug delivery platform forin vivoTNBC treatment. The Fe3O4-PL@RBC showed considerable cytotoxicity against MDA-MB-231 cells, inducing intracellular accumulation of reactive oxygen species, mitochondrial dysfunction and apoptosis. Furthermore, transcriptomic analyses and western blotting analysis demonstrated that the Fe3O4-PL@RBC induced apoptosis through the inhibition of PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway and downregulation of Bcl-2 protein. In MDA-MB-231 tumor models, the RBC membrane coating in Fe3O4-PL@RBC effectively prolonged the circulation time and sufficient enrichment at the tumor sites. And the Fe3O4-PL@RBC significantly inhibited tumor growth with good biosafety. This study provides guidance for the rational design of effective Fe3O4-based NDDS for TNBC treatment.

Bioassay-guided isolation of a new cytotoxic compound targeting carbonic anhydrase-II: in-vitro structure-activity relationships and dynamics studies

Bioassay-guided isolation of Anogeissus dhofarica A.J. Scott afforded one new natural product (lupeol butyl ether, 1), along with sixteen known metabolites (2-17) reported from this source for the first time. Structural elucidation of the isolates was performed by NMR and mass spectrometry. An in vitro carbonic anhydrase-II (CA-II) inhibition assay was performed on the crude extract, the fractions, and the resulting pure constituents. The activity against CA-II of the crude extract and fractions was in the range of IC50 45.10-102.56 µg/mL. Among the isolates, 14 was the most active with an IC50 of 7.19 ± 0.20 µM followed by 10 (IC50 = 13.61 ± 0.30 µM), 12 (IC50 = 17.30 ± 0.58 µM) and 1 (21.63 ± 0.48 µM), with the remaining compounds having moderate to low inhibition. Fourteen compounds were evaluated against breast cancer (MDA-MB-231) and normal cell (3T3-L1) lines in an MTT assay, with most natural products exhibiting moderate activity against MDA-MB-231 cells (1, IC50 = 34.5 ± 0.8 μM/mL), and less active to the normal cell line. Additionally, the molecular binding of the active hits was predicted through an in-silico approach, specifically docking molecular dynamic (MD) simulations, which revealed that acetate and carboxyl moieties play an important role in ligand binding with the Zn2+ ion of the CA-II active site. The MD simulation of the structure dynamics revealed that the most active inhibitors (10 and 14) had strong affinity with the CA-II active site and brought structural conformational changes to the protein.

Targeting TRPML3 inhibits proliferation and invasion, and enhances doxorubicin sensitivity by disrupting lysosomal acidification and mitochondrial function in triple-negative breast cancer

TNBC remains the most aggressive and therapy-resistant type of breast cancer, for which efficient targeted therapies have not been developed yet. Here, we identified TRPML3 (ML3) as a potential therapeutic target in TNBC. Our data showed that ML3 is significantly upregulated in TNBC cells compared with nontumorigenic control cells. ML3 knockdown (KD) impairs TNBC cell proliferation by inducing cell cycle arrest and caspase-dependent apoptosis. ML3 KD also inhibits TNBC cell migration and invasion. Mechanistically, ML3 KD reduces lysosomal number and enhances lysosomal acidification, which in turn activates mTORC1, thereby inhibiting autophagy initiation and flux. This disruption negatively impacts mitochondrial function, as evidenced by reduced ATP production, increased ROS and NO production, and mitochondrial fragmentation. Importantly, ML3 KD enhances TNBC cell sensitivity to doxorubicin and paclitaxel. The finding suggests that targeting ML3 disrupts lysosomal and mitochondrial homeostasis and enhance chemosensitivity, presenting ML3 as a potential therapeutic vulnerability in TNBC enhancing chemosensitivity.

Acquired resistance to jadomycin B in human triple-negative breast cancer cells is associated with increased cyclooxygenase-2 expression

Jadomycin B, produced by the soil bacterium Streptomyces venezuelae ISP5230, induces cytotoxicity in human breast cancer cells in vitro and has antitumoral effects in animal models. In models of multidrug-resistant, triple-negative breast cancer, jadomycin B has shown promise as it is not a substrate of ABCB1 and ABCG2 drug efflux transporters. The generation of reactive oxygen species and inhibition of topoisomerases are potential mechanisms of jadomycin B-mediated DNA damage and apoptosis. However, the mechanisms of jadomycin B's anticancer activity have not been fully elucidated. By gradually exposing MDA-MB-231 triple-negative human breast cancer cells to jadomycin B, we hypothesized that resistance could be selected to further understand jadomycin B's pharmacological mechanisms. A 3-fold increase in the jadomycin B IC50 was observed in MDA-MB-231 cells exposed to increasing jadomycin B concentrations (0-3 μM) over 7 months, herein 231-JB cells. The 231-JB cells were cross-resistant to jadomycin F and S but not to the comparator drugs mitoxantrone, doxorubicin, and SN-38. The 231-JB cells did not have increased mRNA expression of topoisomerase-2 nor ABCB1 and ABCG2. Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) increased by 25-fold, but expression of prostaglandin E2 receptor 4 did not significantly change. Cotreatment with celecoxib (15-45 μM), a COX-2 inhibitor, resensitized the 231-JB cells to jadomycin B (IC50 = 1.41 ± 0.24 to 0.75 ± 0.31 μM vs 2.28 ± 0.54 with 0 μM celecoxib). To our knowledge, this work represents the first report of the involvement of COX-2 in jadomycin B activity in vitro, proving to be an exciting new target for the exploration of jadomycin B anticancer activity. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), the rate-limiting enzyme in prostaglandin production, is associated with procancer signaling. COX-2, ABCB1, and ABCG2 overexpression are typically correlated in cancer, contributing to chemotherapy resistance. We observed increased COX-2, but not ABCG2 or ABCB1, expression in 231-JB cells. This indicates that jadomycin B triggers a distinct resistance mechanism. The COX-2 inhibitor celecoxib reversed jadomycin B resistance in 231-JB cells. As such, 231-JB cells represent an important model for COX-2 signaling in breast cancer and jadomycin B mechanism of action.

Burden of Disease and Cost of Illness of Triple-Negative Breast Cancer in Portugal

BACKGROUND

Triple-negative breast cancer accounts for 15% of all breast cancer cases, and it has a lower survival rate and higher incidence of early recurrence, particularly during the first 10 years after diagnosis.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to estimate the cost and burden of triple-negative breast cancer among the female population in 2019 in Portugal from a societal perspective.

METHODS

The prevalence of triple-negative breast cancer was calculated using a cumulative incidence model on the basis of national epidemiological data. The burden of disease was expressed as disability-adjusted life years, including the years lost due to disability and years of life lost. Healthcare resource utilization was quantified with input from an expert panel, and costs were estimated on the basis of diagnosis-related groups. Indirect costs were established following the human capital approach and supported by inputs from an expert panel.

RESULTS

Considering a prevalence of 7052 cases of triple-negative breast cancer in 2019, the expert panel confirmed that approximately 24%, 29%, 28% and 19% of the patients were in stages I, II, III and IV, respectively. The burden of this disease in Portugal was estimated at 22,566 disability-adjusted life years per year, 94% of which resulted from premature deaths. The total annual cost was equal to €50,351,934, with direct and indirect costs representing 56% and 44%, respectively. The average cost per patient with triple-negative breast cancer was €7140. Direct costs accounted for €28 million and were associated mainly with triple-negative breast cancer locoregional stage treatment and follow-up (65%). Indirect costs represented €22 million and were largely linked to withdrawal from the job market (94%).

CONCLUSION

Triple-negative breast cancer is an impactful disease with high humanistic and economic costs at the national level. The high mortality and low survival rates of this subtype mean that most disability-adjusted life years are due to years of life lost rather than years lost due to disability. Its prevalence is greater among women aged 45-49 years, suggesting a considerable burden regarding labour absenteeism and withdrawal from the job market.

Harnessing Tumor-Infiltrating Lymphocytes in Triple-Negative Breast Cancer: Opportunities and Barriers to Clinical Integration

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) continues to present a therapeutic challenge due to the fact that by definition, these cancer cells lack the expression of targetable receptors. Current treatment options include cytotoxic chemotherapy, antibody-drug conjugates (ADC), and the PD-1 checkpoint inhibitor, pembrolizumab. Due to high rates of recurrence, current guidelines for early-stage TNBC recommend either multi-agent chemotherapy or chemo-immunotherapy in all patients other than those with node-negative tumors < 0.5 cm. This approach can lead to significant long-term effects for TNBC survivors, driving a growing interest in de-escalating therapy where appropriate. Tumor infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) represent a promising prognostic and predictive biomarker for TNBC. These diverse immune cells are present in the tumor microenvironment and within the tumor itself, and multiple retrospective studies have demonstrated that a higher number of TILs in early-stage TNBC portends a favorable prognosis. Research has also explored the potential of TIL scores to predict the response to immunotherapy. However, several barriers to the widespread use of TILs in clinical practice remain, including logistical and technical challenges with the scoring of TILs and lack of prospective trials to validate the trends seen in retrospective studies. This review will present the current understanding of the role of TILs in TNBC and discuss the future directions of TIL research.

Angiogenesis and immune microenvironment in triple-negative breast cancer: Targeted therapy

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is a highly aggressive breast cancer subtype that typically lacks effective targeted therapies, leading to limited treatment options. Chemotherapy remains the primary treatment modality; however, in recent years, new immunotherapy approaches, such as immune checkpoint inhibitors, have shown positive results in some patients. Although the development of TNBC is closely associated with BRCA gene mutations, the tumor immune microenvironment (TIME) plays a crucial role in tumor progression and immune escape. Tumor angiogenesis, the accumulation of immunosuppressive cells, and alterations in immune molecules collectively shape an environment unfavorable for anti-tumor immune responses. Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) and myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) promote immune escape by secreting immunosuppressive factors. Therefore, combination strategies of anti-angiogenic and immune checkpoint inhibitory therapies have shown synergistic effects in clinical trials, while new targeted therapies such as TGF-β inhibitors and IL-1β inhibitors offer new options for TNBC treatment. With the development of personalized medicine, combining immunotherapy and targeted therapies brings new hope for TNBC patients.

Synthesis of folic acid-tailored chitosan-coated exosomes for targeted delivery of 5-fluorouracil to triple-negative breast cancer cells

The use of anticancer drugs is integral to cancer treatment programs. However, the drawbacks of these chemotherapeutic agents, coupled with the problem of drug resistance, remain significant challenges. To address this, we developed a drug delivery platform based on exosomes derived from HEK293 cells, combined with folic acid-conjugated chitosan (FA-CS). The formulation, FA-CS-PEG-5FU@HEK-EXs, exhibited a polydispersity index (PDI) of 0.140, a zeta size of 188.30 nm, and a zeta potential of 3.60 mV. Its cytotoxicity to healthy tissue was negligible; however, at a dose of 500 μg/mL, the survival rate of breast cancer MDA-MB-231 cells decreased to approximately 50 %. Fluorescence staining indicated that FA-CS-PEG-5FU@HEK-EXs induced cell death in cancer cells by increasing reactive oxygen species levels, compromising the mitochondrial membrane potential, and nucleus. Furthermore, FA-CS demonstrated synergistic effects with 5FU, inducing the necrotic cell death (44.6 %). In conclusion, this study demonstrates that using exosomes to deliver the anticancer drug 5FU enhances the drug's therapeutic efficacy. Moreover, compared to conventional cancer therapies, FA-CS-PEG-5FU@HEK-EXs can minimize systemic side effects in clinical applications while enhancing drug utilization, stability, and cellular uptake, leading to highly effective treatment outcomes. The safe and efficient exosome-based platform with significant potential to inhibit tumor proliferation, offering promising insights for future clinical cancer therapies.

Metformin-Based Combination Approaches for Triple-Negative Breast Cancer

Numerous anti-diabetic medications, including metformin, have been explored for their anticancer effects because of the substantial correlation between diabetes and cancer incidence. Metformin has recently gained interest for its anticancer effects against malignancies such as breast cancer, one of the leading causes of death among women worldwide. The cancer-related characteristics of cell proliferation, invasion, migration, and apoptosis are all targeted by metformin. Among breast cancer patients, triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is linked to an increased risk of early recurrence and metastases and has poor prognosis. In addition, TNBC has fewer treatment options compared to other breast cancer subtypes because it lacks hormone receptors and human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2), and it often develops resistance to available treatment options. The current review highlights the recent updates on the mechanistic insights and the efficacy of metformin and metformin-based approaches for the treatment of TNBC. We logically discuss the experimental evidence from the in vitro and in vivo studies exploring metformin's effects on metabolic pathways, and then its combination with other therapeutic agents, targeting cell signaling pathways, and approaches to enhance metformin's effects. We also present clinical studies that underscore the beneficial outcomes of metformin or its combination with other agents in TNBC patients.

ZP4: A novel target for CAR-T cell therapy in triple negative breast cancer

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) remains one of the most challenging subtypes of breast cancer to treat due to a lack of effective targeted therapies. Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-T cells hold promise, but their efficacy in solid tumors is often limited by on-target/off-tumor toxicities. Through comprehensive bioinformatic analysis of public RNA and proteomic data, we identified zona pellucida glycoprotein 4 (ZP4) as a novel target for TNBC. ZP4 RNA and protein were detected in a subset of TNBC patient samples and patient-derived xenograft (PDX) models, with expression otherwise restricted to oocytes. We generated 89 ZP4-specific novel monoclonal antibodies and used the single-chain variable fragment (scFv) antigen binding domains from the top three candidates to engineer CAR constructs. ZP4 CAR-T cells demonstrated efficacy against ZP4-expressing TNBC cells and PDX models. Additionally, we found that variations in the scFv antigen binding domain significantly influence CAR-T cell function.

Lipid dysregulation in triple negative breast cancer: Insights from mass spectrometry-based approaches

Triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) has the worst prognosis among breast cancers due to its aggressive nature and the absence of targeted treatments. Development of novel anti-cancer drugs for TNBC faces challenges stemming from its heterogeneity and high potential for metastasis. Metabolomics can be a useful technology in finding novel therapeutic targets and probing the heterogeneity of TNBC. Metabolomics has been enabled by advancements in mass spectrometry (MS)-based platforms that facilitated comprehensive profiling of TNBC metabolism. This review provides an overview of metabolomic changes in TNBC with emphasis on lipid alterations, and describes the key MS analytical techniques, providing the necessary background for examining the role of lipids in TNBC development.

Synergistic ferroptosis in triple-negative breast cancer cells: Paclitaxel in combination with Erastin induced oxidative stress and Ferroportin-1 modulation in MDA-MB-231 cells

Ferroptosis is an important regulated cell death mechanism characterized by iron-dependent lipid peroxidation and oxidative stress. In this study, we examined the ferroptosis-inducing effect of the combined use of Paclitaxel, a microtubule-stabilizing agent, and Erastin, a ferroptosis inducer, in breast cancer cells. In this context, the combination of the compounds in question was applied to the cells and the presence of a synergistic effect was determined by calculating the combination index. Glutathione (GSH) levels and glutathione peroxidase (GPX) activity were determined by commercial assay kits, and the effect of the compounds on lipid peroxidation was determined by measurement of malondialdehyde (MDA) levels. Additionally, the effect of combination treatment on ferroptotic protein expression was determined by western blot. Our findings revealed that the combination treatment caused a significant change in mitochondrial function by causing an increase in the depolarized/viable cell population. Additionally, there was a significant increase in intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels compared to single applications of the compounds. The significant increase observed in malondialdehyde (MDA) levels revealed that the combination treatment increased lipid peroxidation. Moreover, intracellular GSH levels and glutathione peroxidase (GPX) activity significantly decreased by Paclitaxel-Erastin combination. The expression of ferroptosis-regulating proteins was significantly downregulated. The findings showed that the Paclitaxel-Erastin combination synergistically contributed to the accumulation of lipid reactive oxygen species and induced the ferroptotic cell death pathway in breast cancer cells.

CircRNA (circ)_0007823 Contributes to Triple-Negative Breast Cancer Progression and Cisplatin Resistance via the miR-182-5p/FOXO1 Pathway

Cisplatin (DDP) is used for the clinical management of triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC). However, the development of drug resistance limits its therapeutic efficacy. Circular RNAs (circRNAs) are known to be involved in tumor DDP resistance. In our previous study, we reported that circ_0007823 expression is downregulated and correlated with adverse prognosis in TNBC. However, its association with DDP resistance remains unclear. This study aimed to determine the role of circ_0007823 and miR-182-5p in DDP-resistant TNBC and explore the underlying mechanisms. First, expression profiles circ_0007823, microRNA (miR)-182-5p, and forkhead box O1 (FOXO1) in TNBC cells were determined. Additionally, biological characteristics of cells, including apoptosis, cell cycle, proliferation, and migration, were analyzed using various assays. Luciferase reporter and rescue assays were used to determine the correlations among circ_0007823, miR-182-5p, and FOXO1 expression. MiR-182-5p was overexpressed in DDP-resistant TNBC cells. MiR-182-5p knockdown suppressed the invasiveness and increased the apoptosis of drug-resistant cells, contributing to G1 arrest and S phase reduction. Mechanistically, circ_0007823 targeted miR-182-5p, and its overexpression drastically reduced the promotional effects of the miR-182-5p mimic on the aggression and transfer ability of drug-resistant cells. Furthermore, FOXO1 overexpression increased the sensitivity of cells to DDP and reduced their malignant progression. Therefore, FOXO1 was established as the downstream target of miR-182-5p that may be used to treat DDP-resistant TNBC. In summary, circ_0007823 overexpression attenuated DDP resistance in TNBC via the miR-182-5p-FOXO1 axis, indicating the therapeutic potential of circ_0007823 DDP-resistant TNBC treatment.

Molecular Subtypes and Ki-67 index in Breast Carcinoma with Special Emphasis on Triple Negative Breast Cancer. A 3-year Study in a Tertiary Care Center

Purpose

Molecular subtyping of breast carcinoma and Ki-67 index has gained prominence in the recent past, as conventional factors such as surgical margins, tumor size, grade and lymph node involvement, are not sufficient to assess prognosis and make better therapeutic decisions. These subtypes include Luminal A, Luminal B, Triple Negative breast cancer (TNBC), and HER2-enriched subtypes. This study aimed to analyze the molecular subtypes and Ki-67 index in prognosis of breast carcinoma.

Method

This retrospective study was conducted in the department of Pathology in a tertiary care center over a period of 3 years. All invasive breast carcinomas (IDC) which were molecularly subtyped and Ki-67 indexed were included in the study. Statistical analysis was done using SPSS software.

Results and Discussion

Out of 253 cases, 231 cases (91.3%) were IDC-NST and 22 cases (8.7%) were special types. Metaplastic and papillary tumors were associated with higher grade and high Ki-67 value. TNBC (35.2%) showing a majority of high-grade tumors, was the most prevalent subtype followed by Luminal A (32%) showing low grade, unlike other studies which showed luminal A to be most common subtype. The rare PR positive subtype was also observed in our study.

Conclusion

TNBC and HER 2-positive subtypes exhibited bad prognosis with higher histological grade, high Ki-67 index and higher age at presentation whereas Luminal A subtype, with lower grade and low Ki-67 index showed better prognosis. Thus, this vast array of predictive and prognostic information obtained by molecular subtyping will help clinicians in not only distinguishing between low-risk and high-risk subtypes but also in customization of the treatment and follow-up of the patients.

Development of Multifunctional Targeted Dual-Loaded Polymeric Nanoparticles for Triple-Negative Breast Cancer Treatment

Background/Objectives: Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is a subtype of breast cancer that accounts for 15-20% of all breast cancer cases. TNBC is very difficult to treat with conventional treatment modalities such as chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and surgery; Methods: In this study, we developed a dual-loaded targeted nanotherapeutics against TNBC to solve the challenging problems associated with TNBC treatment: lack of efficacy, toxicity, and poor site-specific drug delivery; PEGylated methacrylate-polylactide copolymer containing cisplatin was synthesized and characterized; Results: The copolymer was used to fabricate nanoparticles (NPs) in the presence of paclitaxel with 1.33% drug loading. The nanoparticles were homogenous, with an average particle size of 198 nm and a negative zeta potential (-41.3 mV). Cetuximab (CTX), a monoclonal antibody that binds to the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), was attached to the NP's surface to enhance the targetability to TNBC. In vitro studies including cell uptake and cytotoxicity in MDA-MB-231 cells confirmed that CTX-targeted NPs have the potential for treating TNBC. The IC50 of CTX-NPs after 96 h of incubation was 0.1 μM, which was significantly lower than those of p-NPs (0.49 μM) and free drugs (PTX + cPt: 0.57 μM); Conclusions: In summary, this research shows that CTX-targeted polymeric NPs containing cisplatin and paclitaxel are effective in treating TNBC in vivo investigations are ongoing.

Molecular Subtypes and Mechanisms of Breast Cancer: Precision Medicine Approaches for Targeted Therapies

Breast cancer remains one of the most prevalent diseases worldwide, primarily affecting women. Its heterogeneous nature poses a significant challenge in the development of effective and targeted treatments. Molecular characterization has enabled breast cancer to be classified into four main subtypes: luminal A, luminal B, HER2-positive, and triple-negative breast cancer, based on hormone receptor expression and HER2 status. A deeper understanding of these molecular markers and their associated signaling pathways, such as MAPK and PI3K/AKT, is essential for improving prognosis and optimizing treatment strategies. Currently, several therapeutic agents are utilized in neoadjuvant and adjuvant therapies, often in combination with surgical interventions. However, emerging evidence highlights the growing challenge of drug resistance, which significantly limits the efficacy of existing treatments. Addressing this issue may require innovative approaches, including combination therapies and precision medicine strategies, tailored to the molecular profile of each patient. Therefore, a comprehensive understanding of the pathophysiologic mechanisms driving breast cancer progression and resistance is crucial for the development of advanced targeted therapies with greater precision and efficacy. This review aims to explore recent advancements in molecular research related to breast cancer subtypes and provide a critical analysis of current therapeutic approaches within the framework of precision medicine.

Role of WAVE3 as an actin binding protein in the pathology of triple negative breast cancer

Breast cancer, a prevalent global health concern, has sparked extensive research efforts, particularly focusing on triple negative breast cancer (TNBC), a subtype lacking estrogen receptor (ER), progesterone receptor, and epidermal growth factor receptor. TNBC's aggressive nature and resistance to hormone-based therapies heightens the risk of tumor progression and recurrence. Actin-binding proteins, specifically WAVE3 from the Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome protein (WASP) family, have emerged as major drivers in understanding TNBC biology. This review delves into the intricate molecular makeup of TNBC, shedding light on actin's fundamental role in cellular processes. Actin, a structural element in the cytoskeleton, regulates various cellular pathways essential for homeostasis. Its dynamic nature enables functions such as cell migration, motility, intracellular transport, cell division, and signal transduction. Actin-binding proteins, including WAVE3, play pivotal roles in these processes. WAVE3, a member of the WASP family, remains the focus of this review due to its potential involvement in TNBC progression. While actin-binding proteins are studied for their roles in healthy cellular cycles, their significance in TNBC remains underexplored. This review aims to discuss WAVE3's impact on TNBC, exploring its molecular makeup, functions, and significance in tumor progression. The intricate structure of WAVE3, featuring elements like the verprolin-cofilin-acidic domain and regulatory elements, plays a crucial role in regulating actin dynamics. Dysregulation of WAVE3 in TNBC has been linked to enhanced cell migration, invasion, extracellular matrix remodeling, epithelial-mesenchymal transition, tumor proliferation, and therapeutic resistance. Understanding the role of actin-binding proteins in cancer biology has potential clinical implications, making them potential prognostic biomarkers and promising therapeutic targets. The review emphasizes the need for further research into actin-binding proteins' clinical applications, diagnostic value, and therapeutic interventions. In conclusion, this comprehensive review explores the complex interplay between actin and actin-binding proteins, with special emphasis on WAVE3, in the context of TNBC. By unraveling the molecular intricacies, structural characteristics, and functional significance, the review paves the way for future research directions, clinical applications, and potential therapeutic strategies in the challenging landscape of TNBC.

A novel micropeptide miPEP205 suppresses the growth and metastasis of TNBC

Triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) is the most aggressive subtype of breast cancer and poses a treatment challenge due to high recurrence risk. Consequently, there is an urgent need for novel and efficacious therapies targeting TNBC. In this context, our study delineates the identification and characterization of a long non-coding RNA (lncRNA)-derived micropeptide miPEP205. Notably, the micropeptide exerts a significant inhibitory effect on the growth and metastasis of TNBC. Moreover, we observed a substantial down-regulation of micropeptide expression in clinical samples, which was markedly associated with a poor prognosis. Mechanistically, our research demonstrated that EGR3 governs lncRNA MIR205HG and the micropeptide expression, while miPEP205 boosts GSK-3β phosphorylation at Tyr216. This cascade causes β-catenin degradation, deactivating the GSK-3β/β-catenin signaling pathway and ultimately inhibits TNBC progression. Remarkably, our experiments in the spontaneous breast cancer mice model MMTV-PyMT demonstrated that the introduction of the miPEP205 gene or exogenous administration of the micropeptide miPEP205 significantly curtailed tumor growth and lung metastasis, and enhanced the overall survival among tumor-bearing mice. In conclusion, our study uncovers a previously uncharacterized micropeptide derived from a lncRNA, showcasing potent antitumor properties. These findings position miPEP205 as a promising novel target for therapeutic intervention in TNBC.

YB-1 Targeted by miR-509-3-5p Affects Migration and Invasion of Triple‑Negative Breast Cancer by Regulating Cellular Epithelial‑Mesenchymal Transition

The epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) process is closely linked to metastasis of breast cancer. This article elucidates the role of Y-box binding protein-1 (YB-1) on the migration and invasion of triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) cells by regulating EMT, and the related mechanism. The expression data of YB-1 and miR-509-3-5p in TNBC samples and normal samples were downloaded from the GEO database. The proliferation, migration, invasion, and EMT of TNBC cells were detected by CCK-8 assay, colony formation assay, wound-healing assay, transwell assay, and immunoblotting analyses. The targeted binding of YB-1 and miR-509-3-5p was validated by luciferase reporter experiment. A xenograft mouse model was constructed to investigate the influence of the miR-509-3-5p/YB-1 axis on TNBC tumor growth in vivo. YB-1 was overexpressed, while miR-509-3-5p was underexpressed in TNBC tumor tissues and various cell lines. Silencing YB-1 depressed cell viability, proliferation, motility, and EMT in vitro, and miR-509-3-5p upregulation exerted the same effects. YB-1 was targeted by miR-509-3-5p. The suppressive effects on the phenotypes of TNBC cells caused by overexpressed miR-509-3-5p were attenuated by YB-1 upregulation. In addition, miR-509-3-5p overexpression restrained TNBC tumor growth and downregulated the YB-1-mediated EMT process in vivo. YB-1 targeted by miR-509-3-5p affects motility of TNBC cells by regulating cellular EMT.

Association of tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes with clinical outcomes in patients with triple-negative breast cancer receiving neoadjuvant chemotherapy: a systematic review and meta-analysis

OBJECTIVE

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) presents a clinical challenge as an aggressive tumor, correlated with unfavorable prognosis. Tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) have garnered interest as a potential prognostic biomarker. However, the disparity in outcomes between varying TILs rates remains inadequately explored.

METHODS

PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Cochrane databases were searched for studies about the prognostic value of TILs in patients with TNBC receiving neoadjuvant chemotherapy. The hazard ratios (HRs) or odds ratios (ORs) were computed for binary endpoints, with 95% confidence intervals (CIs).

RESULTS

Twenty-nine studies were included, involving a population of six thousand one hundred sixty-one (80.41%) with TNBC. The cut-off TILs value ranged from 10 to 60%, with 50% being the most related value. Compared with the low-TIL expression group, the disease-free survival (DFS) (HR 0.71; 95% CI 0.61-0.82; p < 0.00001) and overall survival (OS) (HR 0.76; 95% CI 0.63-0.90; p = 0.002) rates showed significant improvement with higher TIL infiltrations. In the subgroup analyses of the lymphocyte subtypes CD4 + and CD8 + , there was statistical significance favoring higher TILs rates in both subtypes, each associated with improved DFS (HR 0.48; 95% CI 0.33-0.71; p = 0.0002) and OS (HR 0.53; 95% CI 0.36-0.78; p = 0.001), regardless of which cell subtype was predominantly infiltrated. The complete pathological response analysis showed better rates for the higher TIL group than the control for both the TIL (OR 1.29; 95% CI 1.13-1.48; p = 0.0003) and Ki-67 (OR 2.74; 95% CI 2.01-3.73; p < 0.00001) analyses.

CONCLUSION

Higher expressions of TILs in patients with TNBC were associated with improved significantly DFS, OS, and pCR outcomes.

Doxorubicin loaded exosomes inhibit cancer-associated fibroblasts growth: in vitro and in vivo study

Cancer-associated fibroblast cells (CAFs) play a key role in the breast cancer (BC) microenvironment that induces resistance to chemotherapy. Adipose mesenchymal stem cells (ADMSCs) derived exosomes were utilized to deliver the doxorubicin (Dox) to BC cell lines (MDA-MB-231, MCF-7) and CAFs in both mono and co-culture systems. Immunocytochemistry (ICC) for VIMENTIN and flow cytometry for the CD45, CD34, CD73, and CD90 markers were used to confirm the phenotypic characteristics of CAFs and MSC cells. Dox was loaded into ADMSCs-derived exosomes (Exo-Dox) through sonication and its loading wasa confirmed by transmission electron microscope (TEM). Compared to free Dox, Exo-Dox showed a higher efficiency in inducing apoptosis and inhibiting growth and migration in co-culture cells with CAFs (P < 0.05). The up-regulation of H19 and UCA1 lncRNAs, associated with chemoresistance, was confirmed using real-time PCR in CAF-derived breast cancer patients, CAF-derived exosomes, and exosome-derived patient serums. H19 and UCA1 expression levels were significantly down-regulated in MDA-MB-231, MCF-7, and co-cultures of MDA-MB-231 and MCF-7 cells with CAFs that received Exo-Dox treatment. In vivo results indicated that ADMSCs-derived exosomes (MSC-Exos) can accumulate at the tumor site. Exo-Dox suppressed cancer cell growth and significantly decreased tumor size compared to PBS (p < 0.01). The findings confirmed the growth inhibition effects of Exo-Dox n in CAFs, BC cells, and tumor-bearing mice.

RAE-Net: a multi-modal neural network based on feature fusion and evidential deep learning algorithm in predicting breast cancer subtypes on DCE-MRI

ObjectivesAccurate identification of molecular subtypes in breast cancer is critical for personalized treatment. This study introduces a novel neural network model, RAE-Net, based on Multimodal Feature Fusion (MFF) and the Evidential Deep Learning Algorithm (EDLA) to improve breast cancer subtype prediction using dynamic contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (DCE-MRI).MethodsA dataset of 344 patients with histologically confirmed breast cancer was divided into training (n = 200), validation (n = 60), and testing (n = 62) cohorts. RAE-Net, built on ResNet-50 with Multi-Head Attention (MHA) fusion and Multi-Layer Perceptron (MLP) mechanisms, combines radiomic and deep learning features for subtype prediction. The EDLA module adds uncertainty estimation to enhance classification reliability.ResultsThe RAE-Net model incorporating the MFF module demonstrated superior performance, achieving a mean accuracy of 0.83 and a Macro-F1 score of 0.78, surpassing traditional radiomics models (accuracy: 0.79, Macro-F1: 0.75) and standalone deep learning models (accuracy: 0.80, Macro-F1: 0.76). When an EDLA uncertainty threshold of 0.2 was applied, the performance significantly improved, with accuracy reaching 0.97 and Macro-F1 increasing to 0.92. Additionally, RAE-Net outperformed two recent deep learning networks, ResGANet and HIFUSE. Specifically, RAE-Net showed a 0.5% improvement in accuracy and a higher AUC compared to ResGANet. In comparison to HIFUSE, RAE-Net reduced both the number of parameters and computational cost by 90% while only increasing computation time by 5.7%.ConclusionsRAE-Net integrates feature fusion and uncertainty estimation to predict breast cancer subtypes from DCE-MRI. The model achieves high accuracy while maintaining computational efficiency, demonstrating its potential for clinical use as a reliable and resource-efficient diagnostic tool.

Programmed Cell Death Ligand 1 (PD-L1) and Major Histocompatibility Complex Class I (MHC Class I) Expression Patterns and Their Pathologic Associations in Triple-Negative Breast Cancer

Purpose

This study aims to investigate the clinicopathological characteristics of triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) in relation to programmed cell death ligand 1 (PD-L1) and major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC class I) expression, with a focus on their prognostic significance.

Patients and Methods

A retrospective analysis was conducted on formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) tissue samples from 148 TNBC patients diagnosed between 2008 and 2021. Immunohistochemical analysis evaluated PD-L1 and MHC class I expression. PD-L1 was assessed using Combine Positive Scores (CPS), with the threshold set at CPS ≥ 1 and CPS ≥ 10. MHC class I expression was categorized into low and high levels. Associations between these markers, clinicopathological features, overall survival (OS), and disease-free survival (DFS) were analyzed. PD-L1 expression was also compared between older FFPE blocks (2008-2018) versus newer blocks (2019-2021).

Results

PD-L1 expression was observed in 29.1% of cases with a Combined Positive Score (CPS) ≥1 and 8.8% of CPS ≥10 cases. MHC class I expression was evenly split between low and high levels. Older FFPE blocks (2008-2018) showed lower PD-L1 expression than newer blocks (2019-2021). There was no significant association between PD-L1 expression and overall survival (OS) or disease-free survival (DFS). However, high MHC class I expression was strongly associated with improved OS (HR = 0.469, 95% CI: 0.282-0.780, p=0.004). Patients with negative PD-L1 and high MHC class I expression had the most favorable prognosis, with significant OS for CPS ≥1 (HR = 0.447, 95% CI: 0.236-0.846, p=0.013) and CPS ≥10 (HR = 0.516, 95% CI: 0.307-0.869, p=0.013).

Conclusion

These findings support the potential of PD-L1 and MHC class I expression as prognostic markers for TNBC, offering insights to guide treatment decisions and improve patient outcomes.

Cellular Epigenetic Targets and Epidrugs in Breast Cancer Therapy: Mechanisms, Challenges, and Future Perspectives

Breast cancer is the most common malignancy affecting women, manifesting as a heterogeneous disease with diverse molecular characteristics and clinical presentations. Recent studies have elucidated the role of epigenetic modifications in the pathogenesis of breast cancer, including drug resistance and efflux characteristics, offering potential new diagnostic and prognostic markers, treatment efficacy predictors, and therapeutic agents. Key modifications include DNA cytosine methylation and the covalent modification of histone proteins. Unlike genetic mutations, reprogramming the epigenetic landscape of the cancer epigenome is a promising targeted therapy for the treatment and reversal of drug resistance. Epidrugs, which target DNA methylation and histone modifications, can provide novel options for the treatment of breast cancer by reversing the acquired resistance to treatment. Currently, the most promising approach involves combination therapies consisting of epidrugs with immune checkpoint inhibitors. This review examines the aberrant epigenetic regulation of breast cancer initiation and progression, focusing on modifications related to estrogen signaling, drug resistance, cancer progression, and the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). It examines existing epigenetic drugs for treating breast cancer, including agents that modify DNA, inhibitors of histone acetyltransferases, histone deacetylases, histone methyltransferases, and histone demethyltransferases. It also delves into ongoing studies on combining epidrugs with other therapies and addresses the upcoming obstacles in this field.

The critical role of NLRP3 in drug resistance of cancers: Focus on the molecular mechanisms and possible therapeutics

Nod-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3) is a member of the leucine-rich repeat-containing protein (NLR) canonical inflammasome family. It regulates the pathophysiology of cancer by facilitating immune responses and apoptotic proteins. Furthermore, it has been observed that chemotherapy activates NLRP3 in human malignancies. The secretion of IL-1β and IL-22 to promote cancer spread may be triggered by NLRP3 activation. Furthermore, earlier studies have exhibited that NLRP3 may cause medication resistance when used in cancer treatments given that cell viability may be regulated by NLRP3 depletion. Additionally, clinical studies have demonstrated correlation between NLRP3 expression, lymphogenesis, and cancer metastasis. Various NLRP3 agonists may cause the EMT process, stimulate IL-1β and Wnt/β-catenin signaling, and alter miRNA function in drug-resistant cells. This review seeks to clarify the possibility involvement of NLRP3-related pathways in the control of cancer cells' resistance to widely used treatment approaches, such as chemotherapy. In the end, an improved perception of the corresponding mechanisms behind NLRP3's tumor-supporting activities will help NLRP3-based treatments advance in the future.

Unraveling the anti-breast cancer activity of Cimicifugae rhizoma using biological network pathways and molecular dynamics simulation

Cimicifugae is a commonly used treatment for breast cancer, but the specific molecular mechanisms underlying its effectiveness remain unclear. In this research, we employ a combination of network pharmacology, molecular docking, and molecular dynamics simulations to uncover the most potent phytochemical within Cimicifugae rhizoma in order to delve into its interaction with the target protein in breast cancer treatment. We identified 18 active compounds and 89 associated targets, primarily associated to various biological processes such as lipid metabolism, the signaling pathway in diabetes, viral infections, and cancer-related pathways. Molecular docking analysis revealed that the two most active compounds, Formononetin and Cimigenol, exhibit strong binding to the target protein AKT1. Through molecular dynamics simulations, we found that the Cimigenol-AKT1 complex exhibits greater structural stability and lower interaction energy compared to the stigmasterol-AKT1 complex. Our study demonstrates that Cimicifugae rhizoma exerts its effects in breast cancer treatment through a multi-component, multi-target synergistic approach. Furthermore, we propose that Cimigenol, targeting AKT-1, represents the most effective compound, offering valuable insights into the molecular mechanisms underpinning its role in breast cancer therapy.

Dendritic cells in triple-negative breast cancer: From pathophysiology to therapeutic applications

Breast cancer is the second most commonly diagnosed cancer in women and the fifth leading cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide. It is a highly heterogeneous disease, consisting of multiple subtypes that vary significantly in clinical characteristics and survival outcomes. Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is a particularly aggressive and challenging subtype of breast cancer. Several immunotherapeutic approaches have been tested in patients with TNBC to improve disease outcomes, including the administration of dendritic cell (DC)-based vaccines. DCs are a heterogeneous cell population that play a crucial role in bridging the innate and adaptive immune systems. Therefore, DCs have been increasingly used in cancer vaccines due to their ability to prime and boost antigen specific T-cell immune responses. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of TNBC, including potential targets and pharmacological strategies, as well as an overview of DCs and their relevance in TNBC. In addition, we review ongoing clinical trials and shed light on the evolving landscape of DC-based immunotherapy for TNBC.

Benzothiazole-triazole hybrids: Novel anticancer agents inducing cell cycle arrest and apoptosis through Bcl-2 inhibition in triple-negative breast cancer

In this study, we aim to detail the design and synthesis of a series of benzothiazole tethered triazole compounds that incorporate acetamide chains, with the purpose of investigating their potential as anticancer agents. The structural integrity of the compounds was confirmed through characterization using 1H NMR, 13C NMR, mass spectrometry, and IR spectroscopy. The compounds demonstrated notable cytotoxic effects when tested against a range of cancer cell lines, with a specific inhibition observed in triple-negative breast cancer. Among the compounds, the one with trichloro substitution demonstrated the highest potency, as indicated by an IC50 value of 30.49 μM. The compounds were found to trigger cell cycle arrest in the G2/M phase and promote apoptosis, as observed in the mechanistic studies. The Bcl-2 protein exhibited significant binding interactions in molecular docking studies, which were then corroborated through molecular dynamics simulations spanning 100 ns. The simulations confirmed the stability of the ligand-protein complex, as supported by RMSD, RMSF, and hydrogen bond analyses, reinforcing the proposed mechanism of Bcl-2-mediated apoptosis.

Update on Menopause Hormone Therapy; Current Indications and Unanswered Questions

OBJECTIVE

To provide clinicians involved in managing menopause with a summary of current evidence surrounding menopause hormone therapy (MHT).

DESIGN

The authors evaluate and synthesize existing pooled evidence relating to MHT's clinical indications, efficacy, and safety and explore the limitations of existing data.

PATIENTS

The review focuses on MHT-related outcomes in women with natural-timed menopause captured within observational studies, RCTs, and pooled data from pivotal meta-analyses and reviews.

MEASUREMENTS

Available published data are scrutinized. Available evidence and notably lacking data from women not adequately represented in published MHT trials, such as those with socioeconomic adversity, significant comorbidities, and minority ethnic backgrounds, are highlighted and deliberated.

RESULTS

The impact of MHT differs significantly between demographics. Current consensus recommendations for MHT emphasize the importance of tailoring type, route, dose, and duration of therapy to individual needs and risk/benefit ratio through shared decision-making. MHT impact can change over time. Current MHT data support its benefits for treating menopause symptoms and a potential window of opportunity in midlife to benefit skeletal health. Limitations of current evidence highlight menopause health inequalities and underscores the need for further research.

CONCLUSIONS

This review recommends tailored use of MHT for well-defined indications, recognizing its value for menopause symptom relief and skeletal benefits for many midlife women. MHT may be used as long as benefits outweigh risks, through shared decision-making. There is insufficient clinical evidence to support the long-term use of MHT in some contemporary cohorts of women accessing MHT in clinical practice.

Robust collection and processing for label-free single voxel proteomics

With advanced mass spectrometry (MS)-based proteomics, genome-scale proteome coverage can be achieved from bulk tissues. However, such bulk measurement lacks spatial resolution and obscures tissue heterogeneity, precluding proteome mapping of tissue microenvironment. Here we report an integrated wet collection of single microscale tissue voxels and Surfactant-assisted One-Pot voxel processing method termed wcSOP for robust label-free single voxel proteomics. wcSOP capitalizes on buffer droplet-assisted wet collection of single voxels dissected by LCM to the tube cap and SOP voxel processing in the same collection cap. This method enables reproducible, label-free quantification of approximately 900 and 4600 proteins for single voxels at 20 µm × 20 µm × 10 µm (~1 cell region) and 200 µm × 200 µm × 10 µm (~100 cell region) from fresh frozen human spleen tissue, respectively. It can reveal spatially resolved protein signatures and region-specific signaling pathways. Furthermore, wcSOP-MS is demonstrated to be broadly applicable for OCT-embedded and FFPE human archived tissues as well as for small-scale 2D proteome mapping of tissues at high spatial resolutions. wcSOP-MS may pave the way for routine robust single voxel proteomics and spatial proteomics.

Association of Proteasome Activity and Pool Heterogeneity with Markers Determining the Molecular Subtypes of Breast Cancer

BACKGROUND

Proteasomes degrade intracellular proteins. Different proteasome forms were identified. Proteasome inhibitors are used in cancer therapy, and novel drugs directed to specific proteasome forms are developed. Breast cancer (BC) therapy depends on the subtype of the tumor, determined by the expression level of Ki67, HER-2, estrogen and progesterone receptors. Relationships between the presence of specific proteasome forms and proteins that determine the BC subtype remain unclear. Here, using gene expression data in 19,145 tumor samples from 144 datasets and tissues from 159 patients with different subtypes of BC, we investigated the association between the activity and expression of proteasomes and levels of BC subtype markers.

METHODS

Bioinformatic analysis of proteasome subunit (PSMB1-10) gene expression in BC was performed. Proteasome heterogeneity in BC cell lines was investigated by qPCR. By Western blotting, proteasome composition was assessed in cells and patient tissue lysates. Proteasome activities were studied using fluorogenic substrates. BC molecular subtypes were determined by immunohistochemistry.

RESULTS

BC subtypes demonstrate differing proteasome subunit expression pattern and strong PSMB8-10 co-correlation in tumors. A significant increase in chymotrypsin- and caspase-like proteasome activities in BC compared to adjacent tissues was revealed. The subunit composition of proteasomes in tumor tissues of BC subtypes varied. Regression analysis demonstrated a positive correlation between proteasome activities and the expression of Ki67, estrogen receptors and progesterone receptors.

CONCLUSION

BC subtypes demonstrate differences within the proteasome pool. Correlations between the proteasome activity, hormone receptors and Ki67 indicate possible mutual influence. Obtained results facilitate development of novel drug combinations for BC therapy.

Recent Advances in Immunotherapy and Targeted Therapy of Triple Negative Breast Cancer

The truancy of representation of the estrogen, progesterone, and human epidermal growth factor receptors occurs during TNBC. TNBC is recognized for the upper reappearance and has a poorer diagnosis compared with rest breast cancer (BC) types. Presently, as such, no targeted therapy is approved for TNBC and treatment options are subjected to chemotherapy and surgery, which have high mortality rates. Hence, the current article focuses on the scenario of TNBC vital pathways and discusses the latest advances in TNBC treatment, including immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs), PARP suppressors, and cancer vaccines. Immunotherapy and ICIs, like PD 1 and PD L1 suppressors, displayed potential in clinical trials (CTs). These suppressors obstruct the mechanisms which allow tumor cells to evade the system thereby boosting the body's defense against TNBC. Immunotherapy, either alone or combined with chemotherapy has demonstrated patient outcomes such as increased survival rates and reduced treatment-related side effects. Additionally, targeted therapy approaches include BRCA/2 mutation poly ribose polymerase inhibitors, Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor Receptor (VEGFR) inhibitors, Epidermal growth factor receptor inhibitors, Fibroblast growth factor inhibitors, Androgen Receptor inhibitors, PIK3/AKT/mTOR pathway inhibitors, Cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) inhibitors, Notch signaling pathway inhibitors, Signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) signaling pathway inhibitors, Chimeric antigen receptor T (CAR-T) cell therapy, Transforming growth factor (TGF) -β inhibitors, Epigenetic modifications (EPM), Aurora Kinase inhibitors and antibody-drug conjugates. We also highlight ongoing clinical trials and potential future directions for TNBC therapy. Despite the challenges in treating TNBC, recent developments in understanding the molecular and immune characteristics of TNBC have opened up new opportunities for targeted therapies, which hold promise for improving outcomes in this aggressive disease.

Advances in Monoclonal Antibody Therapies for Triple-Negative Breast Cancer: Immunotherapeutic and Targeted Strategies

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) presents considerable obstacles because of its highly aggressive characteristics and limited availability of specific therapeutic interventions. The utilization of monoclonal antibody (mAb)-based immunotherapy is a viable approach to tackle these difficulties. This review aims to examine the present state of mAb-based immunotherapy in TNBC, focusing on the underlying mechanisms of action, clinical applications, and existing challenges. The effectiveness of mAbs in reducing tumor development, regulating immune responses, and changing the tumor microenvironment has been demonstrated in many clinical investigations. The challenges encompass several aspects such as the discovery of biomarkers, understanding resistance mechanisms, managing toxicity, considering costs, and ensuring accessibility. The future is poised to bring forth significant advancements in the field of biomedicine, particularly in the areas of new mAbs, personalized medicine, and precision immunotherapy. In conclusion, mAb-based immunotherapy has promise in revolutionizing the treatment of TNBC, hence providing a possible avenue for enhanced patient outcomes and quality of life.

Regional differences in neo/adjuvant chemotherapy timing in patients with early-stage triple-negative breast cancer in England

PURPOSE

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is an aggressive breast cancer histological type that is predictive of poor outcomes, shorter remission periods and reduced survival. TNBC is treated with surgery and neo/adjuvant chemotherapy, with evidence of association between longer periods from surgery to adjuvant chemotherapy (time to chemotherapy, TTC) and poorer survival outcomes. This study investigated regional differences in TTC period between regions and ethnic groups to evaluate equity of care in the English TNBC population. Time from neoadjuvant chemotherapy to surgery (time to surgery, TTS) was also compared between groups.

METHODS

This retrospective cohort study compared TTC and TTS periods in TNBC patients in England over a two-year period. TTC and TTS were compared by English region and ethnicity, testing for significant differences in treatment pathway timing by these demographics.

RESULTS

1347 TNBC patients were included in the study. Significant regional differences in TTC were observed, with the longest median period of 50 days (IQR 36, 83) in the Midlands compared to 38 days (IQR 27, 55) in the North West (p < 0.001). No significant differences in TTS were observed between regions. Ethnicity was not significantly associated with timeliness of neo/adjuvant chemotherapy initiation (p > 0.05).

CONCLUSION

These findings suggest regional differences in TTC for patients treated with surgery and chemotherapy for TNBC. Given evidence of increased mortality risk as the TTC period increases, the causes of regional disparities warrant further investigation. This study can inform targets for improvement in the delivery of adjuvant chemotherapy in cancer treatment centres in England.

Comparison of the effects of crizotinib as monotherapy and as combination therapy with butyric acid on different breast cancer cells

In recent years, there have been significant developments using combined therapies in cancer treatment. The present study aimed to determine the effects of using crizotinib alone and in combination with butyric acid on different types of breast cancer cells. A total of three different breast cancer models were used: MDA-MB-231, a triple negative model; MCF-7, a Luminal A model; and SKBR-3 cell line, a human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 positive model. In the experiments, proliferation rates and cell index values were obtained using the xCELLigence RTCA DP System, and mitotic index, bromodeoxyuridine labeling index and caspase activity were evaluated as cell kinetics parameters. The results showed that while proliferation rates, cell index values, mitotic index and bromodeoxyuridine labeling index decreased, caspase activity values increased. These results demonstrated that the combined application was more effective than the monotherapy application and could be used at lower concentrations than those drugs applied as monotherapy.

Trametinib and M17, a novel small molecule inhibitor of AKT, display a synergistic antitumor effect in triple negative breast cancer cells through the AKT/mTOR and MEK/ERK pathways

Triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) is associated with a poor prognosis and limited response to traditional chemotherapy, necessitating the exploration of novel treatment approaches. Recent researches have highlighted the interconnected roles of the PI3K/AKT pathway and MAPK pathway in TNBC cells, contributing to the efficacy of treatments. Therefore, the concurrent inhibition of both pathways presents a potential new therapeutic strategy for TNBC patients. This study aimed to evaluate the antitumor efficacy of M17, an AKT allosteric inhibitor and a new synthesized shikonin derivative, both alone and in combination with the MEK inhibitor trametinib. We applied various cellular assays and a subcutaneous 4T1 tumor bearing BALB/c mice model were utilized to assess the in vitro and in vivo antitumor effects. Computational docking and Bio-Layer Interferometry (BLI) were employed to investigate the binding of M17 with AKT. Additionally, flow cytometry, transwell assays, western blotting, and tumor xenograft assays were conducted to explore the potential synergistic mechanisms of the combined therapy. The results demonstrated that M17 exhibited moderate antitumor activity against TNBC cells, but significantly enhanced the apoptotic effects and inhibited proliferation and migration when combined with trametinib. Furthermore, the combination of M17 and trametinib showed even more pronounced antitumor activity in vivo. Mechanistically, the dual therapy synergistically suppressed TNBC by targeting the AKT/mTOR and MEK/ERK signaling pathways and inhibiting epithelial-mesenchymal transition. In conclusion, the findings suggested that the combination of M17 and trametinib holds promise as a synergistic treatment option for TNBC patients.

CPSF4-mediated regulation of alternative splicing of HMG20B facilitates the progression of triple-negative breast cancer

BACKGROUND

Aberrant alternative splicing (AS) contributes to tumor progression. A crucial component of AS is cleavage and polyadenylation specificity factor 4 (CPSF4). It remains unclear whether CPSF4 plays a role in triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) progression through AS regulation. In this study, our objective is to investigate the prognostic value of CPSF4 and pinpoint pivotal AS events governed by CPSF4 specifically in TNBC.

METHODS

We examined the expression levels and prognostic implications of CPSF4 in patients diagnosed with TNBC through public databases. CPSF4-interacting transcripts, global transcriptome, and alternative splicing were captured through RNA immunoprecipitation sequencing (RIP-seq) and RNA sequencing (RNA-seq). The top 10 CPSF4-regulated alternative splicing events (ASEs) were validated using qRT-PCR. TNBC cells transfected with high mobility group 20B (HMG20B) siRNA were subjected to CCK-8 and transwell assays.

RESULTS

In TNBC, CPSF4 exhibited heightened expression levels and was correlated with unfavorable prognosis. Overexpression of CPSF4 significantly promoted colony formation and migration, whereas knockdown of CPSF4 had the opposite effect. Inhibition of CPSF4 altered the transcriptome profile of MDA-MB-231 cells. CPSF4-regulated numerous genes showed enrichment in cancer-related functional pathways, including mRNA processing, cell cycle, RNA transport, mRNA surveillance pathway, and apoptosis. CPSF4-regulated ASEs were highly validated by qRT-PCR. CPSF4 modulated selective splicing events by inhibiting alternative 3' splice site events of HMG20B and promoted cell proliferation, migration, and invasion.

CONCLUSION

CPSF4 promotes TNBC progression by regulating AS of HMG20B. These findings contribute to the development of more useful prognostic, diagnostic and potentially therapeutic biomarkers for TNBC.

Transcriptomic analysis reveals potential crosstalk genes and immune relationship between triple-negative breast cancer and depression

TNBC, the most aggressive form of breast cancer, lacks accurate and effective therapeutic targets. Immunotherapy presents a promising approach for addressing TNBC. Anxiety and depression are frequently concurrent symptoms in TNBC patients. MDD affects the tumor immune microenvironment of TNBC, with its characteristic genes affecting the pathophysiology of MDD and potentially increasing the risk of TNBC recurrence and metastasis. This study reveals significant differences in T lymphocyte infiltration between high-risk and low-risk TNBC groups based on MDD feature genes. This finding aids in identifying TNBC patients who may benefit from immunotherapy, providing new insights for future TNBC immunotherapy strategies. Our aim is to identify MDD-related genes involved in the pathogenesis of TNBC and to provide predictive biomarkers for TNBC immunotherapy.

Not out of the woods: perspectives from patients with triple-negative breast cancer

PURPOSE

Patients with triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) are at high risk for breast cancer recurrence and metastatic disease, yet the scholarly literature on the distress and uncertainty of this vulnerable population is limited. This study aimed to characterize the experiences of patients with TNBC and obtain feedback about the development of a supportive care intervention targeted to this population's psychosocial needs.

METHODS

From 9/2021 to 2/2023, we purposefully recruited 23 patients with stage I-III TNBC who recently completed curative therapy and conducted a parallel mixed qualitative and quantitative study. We conducted in-depth semi-structured interviews regarding the transition from curative therapy to surveillance. Patients also completed self-report measures of fear of cancer recurrence (FCR) (Fear of Cancer Recurrence Inventory Severity) and psychological distress (Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale; PROMIS Anxiety).

RESULTS

Patients were, on average, 51 years old (SD = 13.56). Most patients (87.0%) reported elevated FCR (cutoff = 16; M = 18.91; SD = 6.22). Major themes identified in the qualitative interviews included feelings of dissimilarity among other breast cancer survivors, quality of life interference persisting in the surveillance phase, "shifting the focus away from cancer" as a coping strategy, and FCR as a primary concern. Patients also shared preferences for a TNBC-specific supportive care intervention.

CONCLUSION

Patients with TNBC experience significant challenges during the transition from curative therapy to surveillance and desire psychosocial support during this critical period. These findings illustrate potential intervention targets for a future supportive care intervention tailored to patients with TNBC.

Design, optimization, characterization, and in vitro evaluation of metformin-loaded liposomes for triple negative breast cancer treatment

Recently, metformin (Met) has shown to have antineoplastic properties in cancer treatment by improving hypoxic tumor conditions, and causing reduction in the synthesis of biomolecules, which are vital for cancer growth. However, as an orally administered drug, Met has low bioavailability and rapid renal clearance. Thus, the goal of this study was to vectorize Met inside liposomes in the context of triple negative breast cancer (TNBC), which currently lacks treatment options when compared to other types of breast cancer. Vectorization of Met inside liposomes was done using Bangham method by implementing double design of experiment methodology to increase Met drug loading (minimum-run resolution V characterization design and Box-Behnken design), as it is generally extremely low for hydrophilic molecules. Optimization of Met-loaded liposome synthesis was successfully achieved with drug loading of 190 mg/g (19% w/w). The optimal Met-liposomes were 170 nm in diameter with low PdI (< 0.1) and negative surface charge (-20 mV), exhibiting sustained Met release at pH 7.4. The liposomal Met delivery system was stable over several months, and successfully reduced TNBC cell proliferation due to the encapsulated drug. This study is one the first reports addressing liposome formulation through thin-film hydration using two design of experiment methods aiming to increase drug loading of Met.

PTGR1-mediated immune evasion mechanisms in late-stage triple-negative breast cancer: mechanisms of M2 macrophage infiltration and CD8+ T cell suppression

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is a heterogeneous disease characterized by metabolic dysregulation. Tumor cell immune escape plays an indispensable role in the development of TNBC tumors. Furthermore, in the abstract, we explicitly mention the techniques used and enhance the clarity and impact of our findings. "Based on bioinformatics analysis results, we utilized CRISPR/Cas9 technology to knockout the target gene and established a mouse model of breast cancer. Through experiments such as CCK8, scratch assay, and Transwell assay, we further investigated the impact of target gene knockout on the malignant behavior of tumor cells. Subsequently, we conducted immunohistochemistry and Western Blot experiments to study the expression of macrophage polarization and infiltration-related markers and evaluate the effect of the target gene on macrophage polarization. Next, through co-culture experiments, we simulated the tumor microenvironment and used immunohistochemistry staining to observe and analyze the distribution and activation status of M2 macrophages and CD8+ T cells in the co-culture system. We validated in vivo experiments the molecular mechanism by which the target gene regulates immune cell impact on TNBC progression.

Doubly self-assembled dermatan sulfate/chitosan nanoparticles for targeted siRNA delivery in cancer therapy

RNA interference, a naturally occurring regulatory mechanism in which small interfering RNA (siRNA) molecules are responsible for the sequence-specific suppression of gene expression, emerged as one of the most promising gene therapies in cancer. In this work, we investigate a microfluidics double self-assembly method based on micellization and polyelectrolyte complex formation for the encapsulation of siRNA targeting the BIRC5 gene, a member of the inhibitor of apoptosis gene family, that codes for survivin a protein of theinhibitorof apoptosis protein family that is involved in triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) proliferation and metastasis within nanoparticles of an amphiphilic chitosan-graft-poly(methyl methacrylate) copolymer and low-molecular weight dermatan sulfate, a polysaccharide targeting the CD44 receptor overexpressed in this tumor. Nanoparticles are spherical and display a hydrodynamic diameter of ∼ 200 nm, as measured by dynamic light scattering and scanning electron microscopy. In addition, these colloidal systems exhibit a strongly negative zeta-potential that confers them excellent physical stability for at least four months owing to electrostatic repulsion and evidences the exposure of the polyanionic dermatan sulfate on the surface. The key role of dermatan sulfate in the active targeting and intracellular delivery of the cargo in the murine breast cancer cell line 4T1, a model of TNBC, is confirmed by confocal laser scanning microscopy and imaging flow cytometry. Finally, the silencing efficiency is demonstrated in 4T1 cell viability, migration, proliferation and spheroid formation assays in vitro. Overall results highlight the promise of this simple, reproducible and scalable method for the nanoencapsulation of siRNA and other therapeutic nucleic acids.

New hydrazide derivatives of N-amino-11-azaartemisinin as promising epidermal growth factor receptor inhibitors for therapeutic development in triple-negative breast cancer

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) treatments, such as DNA-damaging agents like carboplatin, pose considerable human toxicity and may contribute to cancer relapse. Artemisinin derivatives offer a less toxic alternative; however, their specific role in TNBC management remains to be established. To address this gap, computational models were employed to design and evaluate artemisinin-based prototypes as potential TNBC therapeutics, aiming to provide safer and more effective treatment options for this aggressive cancer subtype. Among the series of hydrazide derivatives of azaartemisinin (10a-l) reported herein, compound 10j emerged as the most promising, exhibiting notable cytotoxicity with IC50 values of 1.74 and 1.64 µM against MDA-MB-231 and MDA-MB-468 cells, respectively. The clinically useful drug doxorubicin provided IC50 values of 0.29 and 0.29 µM against MDA-MB-231 and MDA-MB-468 cells, while artemisinin provided IC50 values of 107.30 and 116.60 µM, respectively. Furthermore, putative interactions between the synthesized compounds and the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) were identified using molecular docking studies, suggesting a possible mechanism for their anticancer effect. Additionally, to determine the thermodynamic parameters of the interactions between artemisinin, azaartemisinin, and biomolecules, isothermal titration calorimetry experiments were performed. The binding constant value on the order of 104 indicates a comparatively stronger binding affinity of azaartemisinin with human serum albumin (HSA) compared to artemisinin with HSA. These findings support the potential of azaartemisinin derivatives as promising EGFR inhibitors for therapeutic development in TNBC, offering a new avenue for less toxic and more effective cancer treatments.

DCE-MRI Radiomic analysis in triple negative ductal invasive breast cancer. Comparison between BRCA and not BRCA mutated patients: Preliminary results

OBJECTIVE

The research aimed to determine whether and which radiomic features from breast dynamic contrast enhanced (DCE) MRI could predict the presence of BRCA1 mutation in patients with triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC).

MATERIAL AND METHODS

This retrospective study included consecutive patients histologically diagnosed with TNBC who underwent breast DCE-MRI in 2010-2021. Baseline DCE-MRIs were retrospectively reviewed; percentage maps of wash-in and wash-out were computed and breast lesions were manually segmented, drawing a 5 mm-Region of Interest (ROI) inside the tumor and another 5 mm-ROI inside the contralateral healthy gland. Features for each map and each ROI were extracted with Pyradiomics-3D Slicer and considered first separately (tumor and contralateral gland) and then together. In each analysis the more important features for BRCA1 status classification were selected with Maximum Relevance Minimum Redundancy algorithm and used to fit four classifiers.

RESULTS

The population included 67 patients and 86 lesions (21 in BRCA1-mutated, 65 in non BRCA-carriers). The best classifiers for BRCA mutation were Support Vector Classifier and Logistic Regression in models fitted with both gland and tumor features, reaching an Area Under ROC Curve (AUC) of 0.80 (SD 0.21) and of 0.79 (SD 0.20), respectively. Three features were higher in BRCA1-mutated compared to non BRCA-mutated: Total Energy and Correlation from gray level cooccurrence matrix, both measured in contralateral gland in wash-out maps, and Root Mean Squared, selected from the wash-out map of the tumor.

CONCLUSIONS

This study showed the feasibility of a radiomic study with breast DCE-MRI and the potential of radiomics in predicting BRCA1 mutational status.

Effect modification between HLA-F and CD56 markers reveals differences in survival for triple-negative breast cancer patients

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is usually aggressive and challenging to treat. With high tumour immunogenicity TNBC patients might benefit from immunotherapy. We evaluated heterogeneous immune profiles of individual tumours in relation to clinical development to identify immune markers and their mutual expression. We assessed 122 biopsies from patients with primary TNBC tumours by automated image analysis of immunohistochemically stained tissue microarrays. Tumour-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs), expression of HLA I molecules (HLA-ABC, HLA-G, HLA-E, HLA-F) and their mutual associations, as well as associations with other immune response markers (PD-L1, FOXP3, CD4, CD8, CD56) were investigated together with survival outcomes. Analysis of effect modification between HLA-F and CD56 showed longer disease-free survival and time-to-recurrence for tumours with low expression of both markers. TILs were significantly associated with tumour grade and with HLA-F, PD-L1, FOXP3 and CD8 expression, and were significantly associated with longer disease-free survival, also in multivariate analysis. Expression of all immune markers was positively correlated with each other, except CD56. The study highlights the complex immune regulation in TNBC stressing the importance of evaluating the immune landscape of individual tumours to identify patients that can benefit from immunotherapy. The finding of an effect modulation between HLA-F and CD56 is one aspect.