Origin and development of septoclasts in endochondral ossification of mice

ETS1 promotes the expression of Ctsb and Mmp13 during the differentiation of septoclasts from pericytes

Septoclasts (SCs), which express both fatty acid-binding protein 5 and platelet-derived growth factor beta, are mononuclear cartilage-resorbing cells predominantly located at the chondro-osseous junction of the growth plate (GP). These cells originate from pericytes (PCs). Cathepsin B (CTSB) and matrix metalloproteinase-13 (MMP13), expressed in SCs, participate in the degradation of collagen and other cartilage matrices. This study aimed to investigate the involvement of the ETS proto-oncogene 1 (ETS1) in the transcription of Ctsb and Mmp13 during the differentiation of SCs from PCs. ETS1 was localized in SCs and a small number of PCs during development and postnatal stages. Upregulation of Ets1, Mmp13, Ctsb, and the Ets1-related genes, specificity protein 1 (Sp-1), jun proto-oncogene (c-Jun), and cAMP response element-binding protein-binding protein (Crebbp) in SCs compared with those in PCs was shown by RNA-seq analysis of samples isolated from the tibiae of 3-week-old postnatal mice. The Ets1-related proteins were localized ubiquitously in SCs and PCs in the GP. In primary SC cultures, the expression levels of Ctsb and Mmp13 were significantly reduced following treatment with Ets1 siRNA. Thus, our results revealed that ETS1 promoted the expression of Ctsb and Mmp13 in SCs during the differentiation of SCs from PCs.

Proteomic analysis and effects on osteogenic differentiation of exosomes from patients with ossification of the spinal ligament

Ossification of the spinal ligament (OSL), including ossification of the posterior longitudinal ligament and ossification of the ligamentum flavum (OLF), is a multifactorial disease that includes genetic predisposition. The association between the rate of ossification in the spinal canal and the severity of myelopathy symptoms is well known, but the degree of progression varies widely among patients. Although many candidate genes and biomarkers have been reported, there are no definitive and quantitative conclusions to date, probably because of low reproducibility due to individual differences. In this study, we focused on exosomes secreted by ossified spinal ligament cells. Exosomes are crucial for intercellular communication during development and progression of disease. In a co-culture study of non-OLF cells with OLF cells, there was increased osteogenic differentiation, including Runx2 and Wnt3a expression, with use of exosome-penetrating filters (1.2 μm) compared to exosome-non-penetrating filters (0.03 μm). Dose-dependent increases in alkaline phosphatase activity and mineral deposition were observed in non-OLF cells treated with OLF-derived exosomes. These results support the hypothesis that OLF-derived exosomes are involved in regulation of osteogenic differentiation. In comparative proteomics analysis, 32 factors were increased and 40 were decreased in OLF-derived exosomes compared to non-OLF-derived exosomes. Molecular network analysis of these 72 factors indicated 10 significant pathways, including the matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) signaling, mTOR signaling, Wnt signaling and VDR-associated pathways. Among the upregulated exosomal membrane proteins in OLF samples, COL IV, FMNL3, mTORC2, and PIP4K showed increased expression with greater ossification, suggesting they may serve as biomarkers of disease activity and therapeutic targets. These factors are involved in the PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway, and particularly mTOR is known to regulate osteogenic and chondrogenic differentiation. In contrast, fatty acid-binding protein 5, several KRT family proteins, S100A8, SERPINB3, and transglutaminase, were significantly downregulated in OLF-derived exosomes. These findings provide novel insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying OSL pathogenesis.

Integrin expression and extracellular matrix adhesion of septoclasts, pericytes, and endothelial cells at the chondro-osseous junction and the metaphysis of the proximal tibia in young mice

We previously reported that septoclasts, which are uncalcified growth plate (GP) cartilage matrix-resorbing cells, are derived from pericytes surrounding capillary endothelial cells. Resorption of the GP is assumed to be regulated synchronously by septoclasts, pericytes, and endothelial cells. To reveal the contribution of the extracellular matrix (ECM) to the regulatory mechanisms of septoclastic cartilage resorption, we investigated the spatial correlation between the cells and the ECM in the GP matrix and basement membrane (BM) and investigated the expression of integrins-ECM receptors-in the cells. Septoclasts attached to the transverse septa containing collagen-II/-X at the tip of their processes and to the longitudinal septa containing collagen-II/-X at the spine-like processes extending from their bodies and processes. Collagen-IV and laminin α4 in the BM were sparsely detected between septoclasts and capillary endothelial cells at the chondro-osseous junction (COJ) and were absent in the outer surface of pericytes at the metaphysis. Integrin α1/α2, integrin α1, and integrin α2/α6 were detected in the cell membranes of septoclasts, pericytes, and endothelial cells, respectively. These results suggest that the adhesion between septoclasts and the cartilage ECM forming the scaffolds for cartilage resorption and migration is provided by integrin α2-collagen-II/-X interaction and that the adhesions between the BM and pericytes or endothelial cells are mediated by integrin α1-collagen-IV and integrin α2/α6-laminin interaction, respectively.

Application of Single-Cell and Spatial Omics in Musculoskeletal Disorder Research

Musculoskeletal disorders, including fractures, scoliosis, heterotopic ossification, osteoporosis, osteoarthritis, disc degeneration, and muscular injury, etc., can occur at any stage of human life. Understanding the occurrence and development mechanism of musculoskeletal disorders, as well as the changes in tissues and cells during therapy, might help us find targeted treatment methods. Single-cell techniques provide excellent tools for studying alterations at the cellular level of disorders. However, the application of these techniques in research on musculoskeletal disorders is still limited. This review summarizes the current single-cell and spatial omics used in musculoskeletal disorders. Cell isolation, experimental methods, and feasible experimental designs for single-cell studies of musculoskeletal system diseases have been reviewed based on tissue characteristics. Then, the paper summarizes the latest findings of single-cell studies in musculoskeletal disorders from three aspects: bone and ossification, joint, and muscle and tendon disorders. Recent discoveries about the cell populations involved in these diseases are highlighted. Furthermore, the therapeutic responses of musculoskeletal disorders, especially single-cell changes after the treatments of implants, stem cell therapies, and drugs are described. Finally, the application potential and future development directions of single-cell and spatial omics in research on musculoskeletal diseases are discussed.

Could BMPs Therapy Be Improved if BMPs Were Used in Composition Acting during Bone Formation in Endochondral Ossification?

The discovery of bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) inspired hope for the successful treatment of bone disorders, but side effects worsening the clinical effects were eventually observed. BMPs exert a synergistic effect, stimulating osteogenesis; however, predicting the best composition of growth factors for use in humans is difficult. Chondrocytes present within the growth plate produce growth factors stored in calcified cartilage adhering to metaphysis. These factors stimulate initial bone formation in metaphysis. We have previously determined the growth factors present in bovine calcified cartilage and produced by rat epiphyseal chondrocytes. The results suggest that growth factors stimulating physiological ossification are species dependent. The collection of human calcified cartilage for growth factors determination does not appear feasible, but chondrocytes for mRNA determination could be obtained. Their collection from young recipients, in view of the Academy of Medical Royal Colleges Recommendation, would be ethical. The authors of this review do not have facilities to conduct such a study and can only appeal to competent institutions to undertake the task. The results could help to formulate a better recipe for the stimulation of bone formation and improve clinical results.

Osteoclasts and Macrophages-Their Role in Bone Marrow Cavity Formation During Mouse Embryonic Development

The formation of the bone marrow cavity is a prerequisite for endochondral ossification. In reviews and textbooks, it is occasionally reported that osteoclasts are essential for bone marrow cavity formation removing hypertrophic chondrocytes. Mice lacking osteoclasts or having functionally defective osteoclasts have osteopetrotic bones, yet they still form a bone marrow cavity. Here, we investigated the role of osteoclasts and macrophages in bone marrow cavity formation during embryogenesis. Macrophages can assist osteoclasts in matrix removal by phagocytosing resorption byproducts. Rank-deficient mice, lacking osteoclasts, and Pu.1-deficient mice, lacking monocytes, macrophages, and osteoclasts, displayed a delay in bone marrow cavity formation and a lengthening of the zone of hypertrophic chondrocytes. F4/80-positive monocyte/macrophage numbers increased by about fourfold in the bone marrow cavity of E18.5 Rank-deficient mice. Based on lineage-tracing experiments, the majority of the excess F4/80 cells were derived from definitive hematopoietic precursors of the fetal liver. In long bones of both Rank^-/- and Pu.1^-/- specimens, Mmp9-positive cells were still present. In addition to monocytes, macrophages, and osteoclasts, Ctsb-positive septoclasts were lost in Pu.1^-/- specimens. The mineralization pattern was altered in Rank^-/- and Pu.1^-/- specimens, revealing a significant rise in transverse-oriented mineralized structures. Taken together, our findings imply that early on during bone marrow cavity formation, osteoclasts facilitate the entry of blood vessels and later the turnover of hypertrophic chondrocytes, whereas macrophages appear to play no major role. Furthermore, the absence of septoclasts in Pu.1^-/- specimens suggests that septoclasts are either derived from Pu.1-dependent precursors or require PU.1 activity for their differentiation. © 2022 The Authors. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of American Society for Bone and Mineral Research (ASBMR).

Spatial and chronological localization of septoclasts in the mouse Meckel's cartilage

Meckel's cartilage (MC) in the first branchial arch of mammals is a transient structure that disappears before birth, except for the most anterior and posterior portions. Recent studies reported that some congenital abnormalities in craniofacial regions are linked with the persistence or dysplasia of MC. However, the mechanisms underlying the resorption of MC have not been elucidated. Cartilage resorption in endochondral ossification is performed by multinuclear osteoclasts/chondroclasts as well as mononuclear septoclasts, which were newly added to the list of cartilage phagocytes. Septoclasts located exclusively at the chondro-osseous junction of the growth plate resorb the uncalcified cartilage matrix. We hypothesized that septoclasts participate in the resorption of MC and attempted to clarify the localization and roles of septoclasts in MC of mouse using a specific immunohistochemistry marker, epidermal type-fatty acid-binding protein (E-FABP/FABP5). E-FABP-immunopositive septoclasts were detected for the first time at the beginning of MC resorption and localized along the resorption surface. Septoclasts of MC in embryonic mice possessed several processes that elongated toward the uncalcified cartilage matrix, expressed cathepsin B, and exhibited characteristic pericapillary localization. Additionally, they localized between hypertrophied cartilage and osteoclasts/chondroclasts in the resorption surface. Confocal laser-scanning microscopy revealed a decrease in the numbers of septoclasts and their processes with the progression of MC disappearance before birth. The present study showed that E-FABP-immunopositive septoclasts participated in the disappearance of MC through the resorption of the uncalcified cartilage matrix and that they have different roles from osteoclasts/chondroclasts.

Mesenchymal stromal cell-derived septoclasts resorb cartilage during developmental ossification and fracture healing

Developmental osteogenesis, physiological bone remodelling and fracture healing require removal of matrix and cellular debris. Osteoclasts generated by the fusion of circulating monocytes degrade bone, whereas the identity of the cells responsible for cartilage resorption is a long-standing and controversial question. Here we show that matrix degradation and chondrocyte phagocytosis are mediated by fatty acid binding protein 5-expressing cells representing septoclasts, which have a mesenchymal origin and are not derived from haematopoietic cells. The Notch ligand Delta-like 4, provided by endothelial cells, is necessary for septoclast specification and developmental bone growth. Consistent with the termination of growth, septoclasts disappear in adult and ageing bone, but re-emerge in association with growing vessels during fracture healing. We propose that cartilage degradation is mediated by rare, specialized cells distinct from osteoclasts. Our findings have implications for fracture healing, which is frequently impaired in aging humans.

Septoclasts expressing epidermal fatty acid-binding protein (E-FABP, FABP5) in endochondral ossification

BACKGROUND

Long-chain fatty acids (LCFAs) and retinoic acid (RA) are abundant in the growth plates (GPs) of long bones; however, their roles have not been elucidated. We observed that epidermal fatty acid-binding protein (E-FABP/FABP5) with a high affinity for both LCFAs and RA is exclusively expressed in the septoclasts located at the chondro-osseous junction (COJ) of the GP.

HIGHLIGHTS

E-FABP expressed in septoclasts is involved in both LCFA metabolism and RA signaling as an intracellular transporter of both LCFAs and RA. Septoclasts with shortened cytoplasmic processes are associated with cartilage resorptive activity downregulation because of E-FABP deficiency or excess or deficiency of RA. In ontogeny, the septoclasts are differentiated from the pericytes and involved in the resorption of the uncalcified matrix of the cartilage templates in endochondral ossification.

CONCLUSION

Septoclasts originate from pericytes and express E-FABP to play crucial roles in uncalcified matrix resorption by LCFA metabolism and RA signaling during endochondral ossification.

Expression and enhancement of FABP4 in septoclasts of the growth plate in FABP5-deficient mouse tibiae

In our previous study, fatty acid-binding protein 5 (FABP5) was expressed in septoclasts with long processes which are considered to resorb uncalcified matrix of the growth plate (GP) cartilage, and no apparent abnormalities were detected in the histo-architecture of the GP of FABP5-deficient (FABP5^−/−) mice. Those finding lead us to hypothesize that another FABP can compensate the deletion of FABP5 in septoclasts of its gene-mutant mice. Based on the hypothesis, the present study examined the expression levels of several other FABPs in septoclasts and their morphology in FABP5^−/− mouse tibiae. Processes of FABP5^−/− septoclasts tend to be shorter than wild septoclasts. FABP4-positive septoclasts in FABP5^−/− mice were more numerous than those cells in wild mice.

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) γ was expressed in FABP4-positive septoclasts of FABP5^−/− mice as well as mice administered with GW1929, a PPARγ agonist, suggesting that the occurrence of PPARγ induces an increase of FABP4-positive septoclasts. The present finding suggests that the functional exertion of FABP5 in septoclasts is supplemented by FABP4 in normal and FABP5^−/− mice, and that the expression of FABP4 is up-regulated in accompany with PPARγ in FABP5^−/− for maintenance of resorptive activity in the GP.

Heterogeneity and Actin Cytoskeleton in Osteoclast and Macrophage Multinucleation

Osteoclast signatures are determined by two transcriptional programs, the lineage-determining transcription pathway and the receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa-B ligand (RANKL)-dependent differentiation pathways. During differentiation, mononuclear precursors become multinucleated by cell fusion. Recently, live-cell imaging has revealed a high level of heterogeneity in osteoclast multinucleation. This heterogeneity includes the difference in the differentiation states and the mobility of the fusion precursors, as well as the mode of fusion among the fusion precursors with different numbers of nuclei. In particular, fusion partners often form morphologically distinct actin-based linkages that allow two cells to exchange lipids and proteins before membrane fusion. However, the origin of this heterogeneity remains elusive. On the other hand, osteoclast multinucleation is sensitive to the environmental cues. Such cues promote the reorganization of the actin cytoskeleton, especially the formation and transformation of the podosome, an actin-rich punctate adhesion. This review covers the heterogeneity of osteoclast multinucleation at the pre-fusion stage with reference to the environment-dependent signaling pathway responsible for reorganizing the actin cytoskeleton. Furthermore, we compare osteoclast multinucleation with macrophage fusion, which results in multinucleated giant macrophages.

Histochemical and Ultrastructural Study of Developing Gonial Bone With Reference to Initial Ossification of the Malleus and Reduction of Meckel's Cartilage in Mice

Development of mouse gonial bone and initial ossification process of malleus were investigated. Before the formation of the gonial bone, the osteogenic area expressing alkaline phosphatase and Runx2 mRNA was widely recognized inferior to Meckel's cartilage. The gonial bone was first formed within the perichondrium at E16.0 via intramembranous ossification, surrounded the lower part of Meckel's cartilage, and then continued to extend anteriorly and medially until postnatal day (P) 3.0. At P0, multinucleated chondroclasts started to resorb the mineralized cartilage matrix with ruffled borders at the initial ossification site of the malleus (most posterior part of Meckel's cartilage). Almost all CD31-positive capillaries did not run through the gonial bone but entered the cartilage through the site where the gonial bone was not attached, indicating the forms of the initial ossification site of the malleus are similar to those at the secondary ossification center rather than the primary ossification center in the long bone. Then, the reducing process of the posterior part of Meckel's cartilage with extending gonial bone was investigated. Numerous tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase-positive mononuclear cells invaded the reducing Meckel's cartilage, and the continuity between the malleus and Meckel's cartilage was completely lost by P3.5. Both the cartilage matrix and the perichondrium were degraded, and they seemed to be incorporated into the periosteum of the gonial bone. The tensor tympani and tensor veli palatini muscles were attached to the ligament extending from the gonial bone. These findings indicated that the gonial bone has multiple functions and plays important roles in cranial formation. Anat Rec, 302:1916-1933, 2019. © 2019 American Association for Anatomy.