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Verschuren C, Tims M, De Lange AH. Beyond Bullying, Aggression, Discrimination, and Social Safety: Development of an Integrated Negative Work Behavior Questionnaire (INWBQ). INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2023; 20:6564. [PMID: 37623150 PMCID: PMC10454399 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph20166564] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2023] [Revised: 07/21/2023] [Accepted: 07/24/2023] [Indexed: 08/26/2023]
Abstract
Negative work behavior (NWB) threatens employee well-being. There are numerous constructs that reflect NWBs, such as bullying, aggression, and discrimination, and they are often examined in isolation from each other, limiting scientific integration of these studies. We aim to contribute to this research field by developing a diagnostic tool with content validity on the full spectrum of NWBs. First, we provide a full description of how we tapped and organized content from 44 existing NWB measurement instruments and 48 studies. Second, we discussed our results with three experts in this research field to check for missing studies and to discuss our integration results. This two-stage process yielded a questionnaire measuring physical, material, psychological, sociocultural, and digital NWB. Furthermore, the questions include a range of potential actors of NWB, namely, internal (employees, managers) and external actors (clients, customers, public, and family members) at work and their roles (i.e., target, perpetrator, perpetrator's assistant, target's defender, outsider, and witness of NWBs). Finally, the questionnaire measures what type of harm is experienced (i.e., bodily, material, mental, and social harm).
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Affiliation(s)
- Cokkie Verschuren
- Department of Management and Organization, School of Business and Economics, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Maria Tims
- Department of Management and Organization, School of Business and Economics, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Annet H. De Lange
- The Faculty of Psychology, Open University, 6419 AT Heerlen, The Netherlands
- The Department of Psychology, Universidade da Coruna, 15701 A Coruña, Spain
- The Faculty of Psychology, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), 7491 Trondheim, Norway
- Norwegian School of Hotel Management, University of Stavanger, 4021 Stavanger, Norway
- Department of Human Resource Studies, Faculty of Social and Behavioral Sciences, Tilburg University, 5037 AB Tilburg, The Netherlands
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Burr H, Balducci C, Conway PM, Rose U. Workplace Bullying and Long-Term Sickness Absence-A Five-Year Follow-Up Study of 2476 Employees Aged 31 to 60 Years in Germany. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:ijerph19127193. [PMID: 35742441 PMCID: PMC9222956 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19127193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2022] [Revised: 06/08/2022] [Accepted: 06/09/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Objectives: The aim was to investigate workplace bullying as a risk factor for five-year occurrence of long-term sickness absence (LTSA) in a representative cohort of employees in Germany. Methods: In the German Study on Mental Health at Work (S-MGA) (n = 2476), episodes of long-term sickness absence (LTSA) between baseline and follow-up were assessed in the follow-up interview. Workplace bullying was measured in the baseline interview using a hybrid approach, which combines the behavioural experience and self-labelling methods. Through binomial regressions, the association of baseline level of workplace bullying with first-episode LTSA during follow-up was estimated, adjusting for baseline age, gender, occupational level, smoking status and physical demands at work. Results: Severe bullying heightened the risk for LTSA by approximately 50% (Rate ratio—RR: 1.48, 95% Confidence interval—CI: 1.05; 2.19), while occasional bullying heightened the risk by 15% (RR: 1.15, CI: 0.85; 1.55). When excluding LTSA events occurring in the first 2 years, the associations between bullying and LTSA increased by approximately one third. Conclusions: Workplace bullying seems to be a risk factor for LTSA even when controlling for occupational level, smoking and physical demands at work and when taking possible reverse causality into account. We suggest to investigate effects of LTSA in more settings, to distinguish between occasional and severe bullying and employ longer follow-up intervals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hermann Burr
- Federal Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (BAuA), Nöldnerstraße 40-42, 10317 Berlin, Germany;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +49-030-515-484355
| | - Cristian Balducci
- Department of Psychology, University of Bologna, Viale Berti Pichat, 5, 40127 Bologna, Italy;
| | - Paul Maurice Conway
- Department of Psychology, University of Copenhagen, Øster Farimagsgade 2A, 1165 Copenhagen, Denmark;
| | - Uwe Rose
- Federal Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (BAuA), Nöldnerstraße 40-42, 10317 Berlin, Germany;
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Antecedents of Workplace Bullying among Employees in Germany: Five-Year Lagged Effects of Job Demands and Job Resources. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph182010805. [PMID: 34682549 PMCID: PMC8536007 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph182010805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2021] [Revised: 09/30/2021] [Accepted: 10/11/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Objectives: The aim of the present study was to examine the long-term association of job demands and job resources with self-reported exposure to workplace bullying in a representative sample of employees in Germany. Methods: We analysed a nation-wide representative cohort of employees working in the same workplace with a 5-year follow-up (S-MGA; N = 1637). The study contained self-reported measures of psychosocial working conditions, including work pace, amount of work, influence at work, role clarity and quality of leadership, and workplace bullying, and of organisational factors, including organisational restructuring and layoffs. Results: After controlling for bullying and occupational level at baseline, higher baseline levels of organisational restructuring (OR 1.73; 95% CI 1.10–2.70), work pace (1.30; 95% CI 1.01–1.66), and amount of work (1.55; 95% CI 1.21–1.99), and lower baseline levels of influence at work (0.70; 95% CI 0.55–0.90) and quality of leadership (0.64; 95% CI 0.50–0.82), were associated with an elevated risk of workplace bullying at follow-up. In all, 90% of cases of self-reported workplace bullying could be attributed to these factors. Conclusions: The study suggests that employees reporting higher demands and lower resources, as well as organisational factors such as restructuring, are at a higher long-term risk of being targets of workplace bullying. Interventions aimed at preventing workplace bullying could benefit from a focus on psychosocial working conditions and organisational factors.
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Romero Starke K, Hegewald J, Schulz A, Garthus-Niegel S, Nübling M, Wild PS, Arnold N, Latza U, Jankowiak S, Liebers F, Rossnagel K, Riechmann-Wolf M, Letzel S, Beutel M, Pfeiffer N, Lackner K, Münzel T, Seidler A. Cardiovascular health outcomes of mobbing at work: results of the population-based, five-year follow-up of the Gutenberg health study. J Occup Med Toxicol 2020; 15:15. [PMID: 32536961 PMCID: PMC7291638 DOI: 10.1186/s12995-020-00266-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2020] [Accepted: 06/02/2020] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The aim of this study was to determine if there is an increased risk of incident cardiovascular disease (CVD) resulting from workplace mobbing measured with two mobbing instruments in the Gutenberg Health Study. Methods In this prospective study, we examined working persons younger than 65 years for the presence of mobbing at baseline and at a 5-year follow-up using a single-item and a 5-item instrument. We used multivariate models to investigate the association between mobbing and incident CVD, hypertension, and change in arterial stiffness and further stratified the models by sex. Results After adjustment for confounders, mobbed workers appeared to have a higher risk of incident CVD than those not mobbed (single-item HR = 1.28, 95% CI 0.73–2.24; 5-item HR = 1.57, 95% CI 0.96–2.54). With the 5-item instrument, men who reported mobbing had a higher risk of incident CVD (HR = 1.77, 95% CI 1.01–3.09), while no association was observed for women (HR = 1.05, 95% CI 0.38–2.91). There was no difference in risks between men and women with the single-item instrument. No association between mobbing and incident hypertension and arterial stiffness was seen. Conclusions Our results show an indication of an increased risk of incident CVD for those mobbed at baseline when using the whole study population. Differences in risks between men and women when using the five-item instrument may be due to the instrument itself. Still, it is essential to detect or prevent workplace mobbing, and if present, to apply an intervention to halt it in order to minimize its adverse effects on CVD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karla Romero Starke
- Institute and Policlinic of Occupational and Social Medicine (IPAS), Faculty of Medicine Carl Gustav Carus, Technische Universität Dresden, Fetscherstrasse 74, 01307 Dresden, Germany.,Institute for Sociology, Technische Universität Chemnitz, Chemnitz, Germany
| | - Janice Hegewald
- Institute and Policlinic of Occupational and Social Medicine (IPAS), Faculty of Medicine Carl Gustav Carus, Technische Universität Dresden, Fetscherstrasse 74, 01307 Dresden, Germany.,Institute for Sociology, Technische Universität Chemnitz, Chemnitz, Germany
| | - Andreas Schulz
- Preventive Cardiology and Preventive Medicine, Center for Cardiology, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University of Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Susan Garthus-Niegel
- Institute and Policlinic of Occupational and Social Medicine (IPAS), Faculty of Medicine Carl Gustav Carus, Technische Universität Dresden, Fetscherstrasse 74, 01307 Dresden, Germany
| | - Matthias Nübling
- FFAW: The Freiburg Research Centre for Occupational and Social Medicine, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Philipp S Wild
- Preventive Cardiology and Preventive Medicine, Center for Cardiology, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University of Mainz, Mainz, Germany.,DZHK (German Center for Cardiovascular Research), Partner Site Rhein-Main, Mainz, Germany.,Center of Thrombosis and Hemostatis (CTH), University Medical Center Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Natalie Arnold
- Preventive Cardiology and Preventive Medicine, Center for Cardiology, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University of Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Ute Latza
- Division Work and Health, Federal Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, BAuA, Berlin, Germany
| | - Sylvia Jankowiak
- Division Work and Health, Federal Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, BAuA, Berlin, Germany
| | - Falk Liebers
- Division Work and Health, Federal Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, BAuA, Berlin, Germany
| | - Karin Rossnagel
- Division Work and Health, Federal Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, BAuA, Berlin, Germany
| | - Merle Riechmann-Wolf
- Institute for Teachers' Health, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University of Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Stephan Letzel
- Institute of Occupational, Social, and Environmental Medicine, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University of Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Manfred Beutel
- Department of Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, University Medical Center Mainz, Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Norbert Pfeiffer
- Deparment of Ophtalmology, University Medical Center Mainz, Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Karl Lackner
- Institute for Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine, University Medical Center Mainz, Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Thomas Münzel
- Preventive Cardiology and Preventive Medicine, Center for Cardiology, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University of Mainz, Mainz, Germany.,DZHK (German Center for Cardiovascular Research), Partner Site Rhein-Main, Mainz, Germany
| | - Andreas Seidler
- Institute and Policlinic of Occupational and Social Medicine (IPAS), Faculty of Medicine Carl Gustav Carus, Technische Universität Dresden, Fetscherstrasse 74, 01307 Dresden, Germany
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Burr H, Berthelsen H, Moncada S, Nübling M, Dupret E, Demiral Y, Oudyk J, Kristensen TS, Llorens C, Navarro A, Lincke HJ, Bocéréan C, Sahan C, Smith P, Pohrt A. The Third Version of the Copenhagen Psychosocial Questionnaire. Saf Health Work 2019; 10:482-503. [PMID: 31890332 PMCID: PMC6933167 DOI: 10.1016/j.shaw.2019.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 159] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2018] [Revised: 09/20/2019] [Accepted: 10/23/2019] [Indexed: 10/25/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION A new third version of the Copenhagen Psychosocial Questionnaire (COPSOQ III) has been developed in response to trends in working life, theoretical concepts, and international experience. A key component of the COPSOQ III is a defined set of mandatory core items to be included in national short, middle, and long versions of the questionnaire. The aim of the present article is to present and test the reliability of the new international middle version of the COPSOQ III. METHODS The questionnaire was tested among 23,361 employees during 2016-2017 in Canada, Spain, France, Germany, Sweden, and Turkey. A total of 26 dimensions (measured through scales or single items) of the middle version and two from the long version were tested. Psychometric properties of the dimensions were assessed regarding reliability (Cronbach α), ceiling and floor effects (fractions with extreme answers), and distinctiveness (correlations with other dimensions). RESULTS Most international middle dimensions had satisfactory reliability in most countries, though some ceiling and floor effects were present. Dimensions with missing values were rare. Most dimensions had low to medium intercorrelations. CONCLUSIONS The COPSOQ III offers reliable and distinct measures of a wide range of psychosocial dimensions of modern working life in different countries; although a few measures could be improved. Future testing should focus on validation of the COPSOQ items and dimensions using both qualitative and quantitative approaches. Such investigations would enhance the basis for recommendations using the COPSOQ III.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hermann Burr
- Division 3 Work and Health, Federal Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (BAuA), Berlin, Germany
| | - Hanne Berthelsen
- Center for Work Life and Evaluation Studies (CTA) and the Faculty of Odontology, Malmö University, Malmö, Sweden
| | - Salvador Moncada
- Union Institute of Work, Environment and Health (ISTAS), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Matthias Nübling
- Freiburg Research Centre for Occupational Sciences (FFAW), Freiburg, Germany
| | | | - Yucel Demiral
- Department of Public Health, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey
| | - John Oudyk
- Occupational Health Clinics for Ontario Workers (OHCOW), Hamilton, Canada
| | | | - Clara Llorens
- Union Institute of Work, Environment and Health (ISTAS), Barcelona, Spain
- Research Group on Psychosocial Risks, Organization of Work and Health (POWAH), Autonomous University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Albert Navarro
- Research Group on Psychosocial Risks, Organization of Work and Health (POWAH), Autonomous University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Biostatistics Unit, Faculty of Medicine, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Hans-Joachim Lincke
- Freiburg Research Centre for Occupational Sciences (FFAW), Freiburg, Germany
| | | | - Ceyda Sahan
- Department of Public Health, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey
| | - Peter Smith
- Institute for Work and Health (IWH), Toronto, ON, Canada
- Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Victoria, Australia
- Dalla Lana School of Public Health, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Anne Pohrt
- Institut für Medizinische Psychologie, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
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Workplace bullying and depressive symptoms among employees in Germany: prospective associations regarding severity and the role of the perpetrator. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 2019; 93:433-443. [PMID: 31781901 PMCID: PMC7118039 DOI: 10.1007/s00420-019-01492-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2019] [Accepted: 11/15/2019] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Objectives The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of self-reported workplace bullying on depressive symptoms in a prospective study among a representative sample of employees from Germany. We focused specifically on the role of the perpetrator (co-workers and superiors), which was never done before in a longitudinal design. Methods We used data from a nation-wide representative panel study with a 5-year follow-up (N = 2172). Data on bullying exposure were obtained separately for different perpetrators (co-workers and superiors) and degree of severity (severe bullying, i.e., at least weekly). Depressive symptoms were assessed with the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ). We used logistic regression analyses to examine the effect of workplace bullying at baseline on depressive symptoms at follow-up. Results After adjusting for baseline depressive symptoms, severe bullying by co-workers significantly increased the 5-year risk of depressive symptoms (OR = 2.50). Severe bullying by superiors had a nonsignificant effect. Conclusions Workplace bullying is a risk factor for depressive symptoms among employees in Germany. The type of perpetrator seems to be an important factor to consider, as indicated by the elevated risk of depressive symptoms when bullying is perpetrated by co-workers.
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Steffgen G, Sischka P, Schmidt AF, Kohl D, Happ C. The Luxembourg Workplace Mobbing Scale. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT 2019. [DOI: 10.1027/1015-5759/a000381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Abstract. Workplace mobbing is a serious phenomenon that is costly to organizations and has various negative consequences of those targeted. The main purpose of the present study was to develop and validate a new short scale of workplace mobbing experience in three different language versions (German, French, Luxembourgish). Data were collected via computer-assisted telephone interviews in a sample of 1,500 employees working in Luxembourg (aged 17–64 years; 52.7% male) who were representative of the commuter structure of Luxembourg’s workforce. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) showed that the newly developed five-item Luxembourg Workplace Mobbing Scale (LWMS) has good psychometric properties and partial scalar measurement invariance for the three different language versions. Internal consistency was satisfactory (α = .73). Correlations and hierarchical regression analysis with different working condition scales and psychological health scales confirm the construct validity of the new questionnaire. Although the present findings are preliminary in nature, they nevertheless support the reliability and validity of the scale and its use in psychological research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georges Steffgen
- University of Luxembourg, Institute for Health and Behaviour, Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg
| | - Philipp Sischka
- University of Luxembourg, Institute for Health and Behaviour, Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg
| | | | - Diane Kohl
- University of Luxembourg, Institute for Health and Behaviour, Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg
| | - Christian Happ
- Medical School Hamburg, Department of Psychology, Hamburg, Germany
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Lange S, Burr H, Conway PM, Rose U. Workplace bullying among employees in Germany: prevalence estimates and the role of the perpetrator. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 2018; 92:237-247. [PMID: 30390155 PMCID: PMC6341046 DOI: 10.1007/s00420-018-1366-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2018] [Accepted: 10/21/2018] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The aim of this study was to examine the prevalence of workplace bullying in Germany while also taking the perpetrator and severity level (measured by frequency) into account and considering the role of gender, age and socio-economic status. METHODS We used data from a large representative sample (N = 4143) of employees in Germany subject to social security contributions. Self-reported bullying was assessed for different combinations of perpetrators (co-workers, superiors) and according to severity, i.e., being exposed at all and to severe bullying (at least weekly). RESULTS Prevalence estimates varied from 2.9% for severe bullying by co-workers to 17.1% for overall bullying (i.e., without distinguishing by perpetrator, less severe bullying also included). Unskilled workers reported more bullying by both perpetrators than academics/managers. We also observed an age trend for severe bullying by superiors (i.e., bossing), with younger employees being more affected from bossing than elder. No gender differences were detected. CONCLUSIONS The findings indicate that it is crucial to consider type of perpetrator and severity of the behaviors when examining the prevalence of workplace bullying. The way bullying is defined and operationalized strongly contributes to the prevalence estimates. Differences between subgroups and associations or cause-effect relationships should be analyzed with these variations in mind.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefanie Lange
- Federal Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (BAuA), Nöldnerstraße 40-42, 10317 Berlin, Germany
| | - Hermann Burr
- Federal Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (BAuA), Nöldnerstraße 40-42, 10317 Berlin, Germany
| | | | - Uwe Rose
- Federal Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (BAuA), Nöldnerstraße 40-42, 10317 Berlin, Germany
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Hutchinson M, Bradbury J, Browne G, Hurley J. Determining the optimal cut-off scores for the Workplace Bullying Inventory. Nurse Res 2017; 25:46-50. [PMID: 29251449 DOI: 10.7748/nr.2017.e1543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/05/2017] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Over the past two decades, there has been considerable research into workplace bullying. One area that remains poorly developed is a tool with the capacity to accurately differentiate between exposed and unexposed employees. AIM To determine optimal cut-off scores for the Workplace Bullying Inventory (WBI) that accurately classify cases of exposure to workplace bullying. DISCUSSION Secondary analysis of data collected from Australian public sector employees ( n =2,197) was conducted. Receiver operator characteristic (ROC) curve analysis was used with a minimum sensitivity of 80%, to determine those scores on the WBI that corresponded with the highest accuracy of the tool to distinguish cases from non-cases. The results suggest using a cut score of 29 from the total score on the WBI (possible range: 18-90). When compared to a sum-score from a single dichotomous self-report variable, the cut-off score estimated a more conservative bullying rate. The single-item rate was potentially inflated by misconceptions about what constitutes bullying in the workplace. CONCLUSION Employing validated cut-off points for exposure provides an objective threshold for establishing exposure to workplace bullying. The results of the analysis provide a more rigorous approach to quantifying exposure to workplace bullying, in a tool that has been designed and tested in the nursing workforce. This is the first such tool with empirically-derived, discriminant accuracy. IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE It is common for nurse researchers to employ sum-scores from single items to identify exposure to workplace bullying. By providing reliable cut-off points for exposure, this study offers standardised, diagnostic accuracy for researchers, clinicians and managers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie Hutchinson
- Health and Human Sciences, Southern Cross University, Lismore, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Joanne Bradbury
- Southern Cross University, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia
| | - Graeme Browne
- University of Newcastle, Callaghan, New South Wales, Australia
| | - John Hurley
- Southern Cross University, Coffs Harbour, New South Wales, Australia
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