Motor-cognitive dual-task performance: effects of a concurrent motor task on distinct components of visual processing capacity

Countermovement Jump Performance Is Altered by Visual and Auditory Cognitive Dual Tasking in Recreationally Active Young Adults: A Cross-Sectional Study

In sports settings, it is important to understand and assess the effects of cognitive-motor interference on sport-specific tasks throughout strength and conditioning programs to better represent the athletic environment. This study used a low-cost movement assessment system, the Mizzou Point-of-care Assessment System, to measure the effects of visual and auditory cognitive-motor dual tasking on countermovement jump (CMJ) performance. Thirty-one recreationally active adults (21.1 [1.9] y, 168.9 [11.8] cm, 69.1 [13.6] kg) participated. Participants performed 3 trials of CMJ under 3 conditions: control, audio dual tasking, and visual dual tasking. Tasks were assessed using a low-cost system comprising a custom force plate, depth camera, and interface board. Repeated-measures analysis of variance with post hoc t tests revealed significant decreases in several kinematic and kinetic outcome measures, including time in the concentric phase (in seconds; 95% CI mean difference audio-control = -0.045 to 0.0054; visual-control = -0.045 to 0.0054), time to takeoff (in seconds; audio-control = -0.026 to 0.086; visual-control = -0.026 to 0.086), jump height (in meters; audio-control = -0.0081 to 0.048; visual-control = -0.01 to 0.05), maximum knee flexion (in degrees) at jump (audio-control = 1.47 to 9.89; visual-control = -1.58 to 9.66), hip flexion (in degrees) at maximum knee flexion during jump (audio-control = 0.00 [0.00 to 0.00]; visual-control = 0.00 [0.00 to 0.00]), and several others for both dual tasking conditions compared with control but not between audio and visual conditions. Results indicate that both dual task conditions negatively impact CMJ performance and that their effects can be effectively quantified using a low-cost assessment tool.

Benefiting from binary negations? Verbal negations decrease visual attention and balance its distribution

Negated statements require more processing efforts than assertions. However, in certain contexts, repeating negations undergo adaptation, which over time mitigates the effort. Here, we ask whether negations hamper visual processing and whether consecutive repetitions mitigate its influence. We assessed the overall attentional capacity, that is, the available processing resources, and its distribution, the relative weight, quantitatively using the formal Theory of Visual Attention (TVA). We employed a very simple form for negations, binary negations on top of an accuracy-based, TVA-based temporal-order judgment (TOJ) paradigm. Negated instructions, expressing the only alternative to the core supposition, were cognitively demanding, resulting in a loss of attentional capacity in three experiments. The overall attentional capacity recovered gradually but stagnated at a lower level than with assertions, even after many repetitions. Additionally, negations distributed the attention equally between the target and reference stimulus. Repetitions slightly increased the reference stimulus' share of attention. Assertions, on the other hand, shifted the attentional weight toward the target stimulus. Few repetitions slightly decreased the attentional shift toward the target stimulus, many repetitions increased it.

Associations between brain structures, cognition and dual-task performance in patients with mild cognitive impairment: A study based on voxel-based morphology

BACKGROUND

This study aimed to explore the associations between brain structures, cognition, and motor control in participants with mild cognitive impairment (MCI), with a focus on dual-task performance.

METHODS

Thirty MCI patients and thirty healthy controls were enrolled. Cognitive function was assessed using the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA). Structural magnetic resonance imaging data were analyzed using voxel-based morphometry (VBM) to calculate brain parenchyma volume and gray matter volume (GMV). Participants performed single- and dual-task Timed Up and Go (TUG) tests, and the correlations between significant GMV differences and task execution time was analyzed.

RESULTS

MCI patients showed significantly lower MoCA scores, particularly in visuospatial/executive, attention, and delayed recall domains (p < 0.05). Dual-task TUG execution time was significantly increased in MCI patients (p < 0.05). The GMV in the right anterior lobe of the cerebellum and both insulae was positively correlated with visuospatial/executive scores (FDR-corrected, p < 0.05). The GMV of the right cerebellar anterior lobe and insula were significantly reduced in MCI patients (p < 0.05). The GMV of the right cerebellar anterior lobe was negatively correlated with dual-task execution time (r = -0.32, p = 0.012).

CONCLUSION

Smaller GMV in the right anterior lobe of the cerebellum was associated with impaired dual-task performance, which may provide more evidence for the neural mechanisms of cognitive and motor function impairments in MCI.

Effects of different physical activity interventions on children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A network meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials

Background

Previous studies have shown that physical activity interventions positively affect core symptoms and executive functioning in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). However, comparisons between different physical activity interventions still need to be made. This study is the first to analyze the effects of 10 different types of physical activity on children with ADHD through a network meta-analysis.

Methods

PubMed, Embase, Web of Science, and Cochrane Library databases were searched for randomized controlled trials on the effects of physical activity interventions on children with ADHD. The search time frame was from database creation to October 2022. Two investigators independently performed literature screening, extraction, and quality assessment. Network meta-analysis was performed with Stata 15.1.

Results

A total of 31 studies were included, and the results indicated that perceptual-motor training was the most effective in terms of motor ability and working memory (SUCRA = 82.7 and 73.3%, respectively). For attention problems and cognitive flexibility, aquatic exercise was the most effective (SUCRA = 80.9 and 86.6%, respectively). For social problems, horsemanship was the most effective (SUCRA = 79.4%). For inhibition switching, cognitive-motor training was the most effective (SUCRA = 83.5%).

Conclusion

Our study revealed that aquatic exercise and perceptual-motor training had a superior overall performance. However, the effects of various physical activity interventions on different indicators in children with ADHD can vary depending on the individual and the intervention's validity. To ensure an appropriate physical activity intervention is selected, it is important to assess the severity of symptoms exhibited by children with ADHD beforehand.

Capacity Limits Lead to Information Bottlenecks in Ongoing Rapid Motor Behaviors

Studies of ongoing, rapid motor behaviors have often focused on the decision-making implicit in the task. Here, we instead study how decision-making integrates with the perceptual and motor systems and propose a framework of limited-capacity, pipelined processing with flexible resources to understand rapid motor behaviors. Results from three experiments show that human performance is consistent with our framework: participants perform objectively worse as task difficulty increases, and, surprisingly, this drop in performance is largest for the most skilled performers. As well, our analysis shows that the worst-performing participants can perform equally well under increased task demands, which is consistent with flexible neural resources being allocated to reduce bottleneck effects and improve overall performance. We conclude that capacity limits lead to information bottlenecks and that processes like attention help reduce the effects that these bottlenecks have on maximal performance.

Time estimation during motor activity

Several studies on time estimation showed that the estimation of temporal intervals is related to the amount of attention devoted to time. This is explained by the scalar timing theory, which assumes that attention alters the number of pulses transferred by our internal clock to an accumulator that keeps track of the elapsed time. In a previous study, it was found that time underestimation during cognitive-demanding tasks was more pronounced while walking than while sitting, whereas no clear motor-induced effects emerged without a concurrent cognitive task. What remains unclear then is the motor interference itself on time estimation. Here we aim to clarify how the estimation of time can be influenced by demanding motor mechanisms and how different motor activities interact with concurrent cognitive tasks during time estimation. To this purpose, we manipulated simultaneously the difficulty of the cognitive task (solving arithmetic operations) and the motor task. We used an automated body movement that should require no motor or mental effort, a more difficult movement that requires some motor control, and a highly demanding movement requiring motor coordination and attention. We compared the effects of these three types of walking on time estimation accuracy and uncertainty, arithmetic performance, and reaction times. Our findings confirm that time estimation is affected by the difficulty of the cognitive task whereas we did not find any evidence that time estimation changes with the complexity of our motor task, nor an interaction between walking and the concurrent cognitive tasks. We can conclude that walking, although highly demanding, does not have the same effects as other mental tasks on time estimation.

Tai Chi practice enables prefrontal cortex bilateral activation and gait performance prioritization during dual-task negotiating obstacle in older adults

BACKGROUND

With aging, the cognitive function of the prefrontal cortex (PFC) declined, postural control weakened, and fall risk increased. As a mind-body exercise, regular Tai Chi practice could improve postural control and effectively prevent falls; however, underlying brain mechanisms remained unclear, which were shed light on by analyzing the effect of Tai Chi on the PFC in older adults by means of functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS).

METHODS

36 healthy older adults without Tai Chi experience were divided randomly into Tai Chi group and Control group. The experiment was conducted four times per week for 16 weeks; 27 participants remained and completed the experiment. Negotiating obstacle task (NOT) and negotiating obstacle with cognitive task (NOCT) were performed pre- and post-intervention, and Brodmann area 10 (BA10) was detected using fNIRS for hemodynamic response. A three-dimensional motion capture system measured walking speed.

RESULTS

After intervention in the Tai Chi group under NOCT, the HbO2 concentration change value (ΔHbO2) in BA10 was significantly greater (right BA10: p = 0.002, left BA10: p = 0.001), walking speed was significantly faster (p = 0.040), and dual-task cost was significantly lower than pre-intervention (p = 0.047). ΔHbO2 in BA10 under NOCT was negatively correlated with dual-task cost (right BA10: r = -0.443, p = 0.021, left BA10: r = -0.448, p = 0.019). There were strong negative correlations between ΔHbO2 and ΔHbR under NOCT either pre-intervention (left PFC r = -0.841, p < 0.001; right PFC r = -0.795, p < 0.001) or post-intervention (left PFC r = -0.842, p < 0.001; right PFC r = -0.744, p < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

Tai Chi practice might increase the cognitive resources in older adults through the PFC bilateral activation to prioritize gait performance during negotiating obstacles under a dual-task condition.

Advances in the application of a computational Theory of Visual Attention (TVA): Moving towards more naturalistic stimuli and game-like tasks

The theory of visual attention, “TVA”, is an influential and formal theory of attentional selection. It is widely applied in clinical assessment of attention and fundamental attention research. However, most TVA-based research is based on accuracy data from letter report experiments performed in controlled laboratory environments. While such basic approaches to questions regarding attentional selection are undoubtedly useful, recent technological advances have enabled the use of increasingly sophisticated experimental paradigms involving more realistic scenarios. Notably, these studies have in many cases resulted in different estimates of capacity limits than those found in studies using traditional TVA-based assessment. Here we review recent developments in TVA-based assessment of attention that goes beyond the use of letter report experiments and experiments performed in controlled laboratory environments. We show that TVA can be used with other tasks and new stimuli, that TVA-based parameter estimation can be embedded into complex scenarios, such as games that can be used to investigate particular problems regarding visual attention, and how TVA-based simulations of “visual foraging” can elucidate attentional control in more naturalistic tasks. We also discuss how these developments may inform future advances of TVA.

Age-related enhancement in visuomotor learning by a dual-task

Many daily activities require performance of multiple tasks integrating cognitive and motor processes. While the fact that both processes go through deterioration and changes with aging has been generally accepted, not much is known about how aging interacts with stages of motor skill acquisition under a cognitively demanding situation. To address this question, we combined a visuomotor adaptation task with a secondary cognitive task. We made two primary findings beyond the expected age-related performance deterioration. First, while young adults showed classical dual-task cost in the early motor learning phase dominated by explicit processes, older adults instead strikingly displayed enhanced performance in the later stage, dominated by implicit processes. For older adults, the secondary task may have facilitated a shift to their relatively intact implicit learning processes that reduced reliance on their already-deficient explicit processes during visuomotor adaptation. Second, we demonstrated that consistently performing the secondary task in learning and re-learning phases can operate as an internal task-context and facilitate visuomotor memory retrieval later regardless of age groups. Therefore, our study demonstrated age-related similarities and differences in integrating concurrent cognitive load with motor skill acquisition which, may in turn, contributes to the understanding of a shift in balance across multiple systems.

Benefits of Higher Cardiovascular and Motor Coordinative Fitness on Driving Behavior Are Mediated by Cognitive Functioning: A Path Analysis

Driving is an important skill for older adults to maintain an independent lifestyle, and to preserve the quality of life. However, the ability to drive safely in older adults can be compromised by age-related cognitive decline. Performing an additional task during driving (e.g., adjusting the radio) increases cognitive demands and thus might additionally impair driving performance. Cognitive functioning has been shown to be positively related to physical activity/fitness such as cardiovascular and motor coordinative fitness. As such, a higher fitness level might be associated with higher cognitive resources and may therefore benefit driving performance under dual-task conditions. For the first time, the present study investigated whether this association of physical fitness and cognitive functioning causes an indirect relationship between physical fitness and dual-task driving performance through cognitive functions. Data from 120 healthy older adults (age: 69.56 ± 3.62, 53 female) were analyzed. Participants completed tests on cardiovascular fitness (cardiorespiratory capacity), motor coordinative fitness (composite score: static balance, psychomotor speed, bimanual dexterity), and cognitive functions (updating, inhibition, shifting, cognitive processing speed). Further, they performed a virtual car driving scenario where they additionally engaged in cognitively demanding tasks that were modeled after typical real-life activities during driving (typing or reasoning). Structural equation modeling (path analysis) was used to investigate whether cardiovascular and motor coordinative fitness were indirectly associated with lane keeping (i.e., variability in lateral position) and speed control (i.e., average velocity) while dual-task driving via cognitive functions. Both cardiovascular and motor coordinative fitness demonstrated the hypothesized indirect effects on dual-task driving. Motor coordinative fitness showed a significant indirect effect on lane keeping, while cardiovascular fitness demonstrated a trend-level indirect effect on speed control. Moreover, both fitness domains were positively related to different cognitive functions (processing speed and/or updating), and cognitive functions (updating or inhibition), in turn, were related to dual-task driving. These findings indicate that cognitive benefits associated with higher fitness may facilitate driving performance. Given that driving with lower cognitive capacity can result in serious consequences, this study emphasizes the importance for older adults to engage in a physically active lifestyle as it might serve as a preventive measure for driving safety.

Tracking the Costs of Clear and Loud Speech: Interactions Between Speech Motor Control and Concurrent Visuomotor Tracking

Purpose Prior work has demonstrated that competing tasks impact habitual speech production. The purpose of this investigation was to quantify the extent to which clear and loud speech are affected by concurrent performance of an attention-demanding task. Method Speech kinematics and acoustics were collected while participants spoke using habitual, loud, and clear speech styles. The styles were performed in isolation and while performing a secondary tracking task. Results Compared to the habitual style, speakers exhibited expected increases in lip aperture range of motion and speech intensity for the clear and loud styles. During concurrent visuomotor tracking, there was a decrease in lip aperture range of motion and speech intensity for the habitual style. Tracking performance during habitual speech did not differ from single-task tracking. For loud and clear speech, speakers retained the gains in speech intensity and range of motion, respectively, while concurrently tracking. A reduction in tracking performance was observed during concurrent loud and clear speech, compared to tracking alone. Conclusions These data suggest that loud and clear speech may help to mitigate motor interference associated with concurrent performance of an attention-demanding task. Additionally, reductions in tracking accuracy observed during concurrent loud and clear speech may suggest that these higher effort speaking styles require greater attentional resources than habitual speech.

Two sources of task prioritization: The interplay of effector-based and task order-based capacity allocation in the PRP paradigm

When processing of two tasks overlaps, performance is known to suffer. In the well-established psychological refractory period (PRP) paradigm, tasks are triggered by two stimuli with a short temporal delay (stimulus onset asynchrony; SOA), thereby allowing control of the degree of task overlap. A decrease of the SOA reliably yields longer RTs of the task associated with the second stimulus (Task 2) while performance in the other task (Task 1) remains largely unaffected. This Task 2-specific SOA effect is usually interpreted in terms of central capacity limitations. Particularly, it has been assumed that response selection in Task 2 is delayed due to the allocation of less capacity until this process has been completed in Task 1. Recently, another important factor determining task prioritization has been proposed—namely, the particular effector systems associated with tasks. Here, we study both sources of task prioritization simultaneously by systematically combining three different effector systems (pairwise combinations of oculomotor, vocal, and manual responses) in the PRP paradigm. Specifically, we asked whether task order-based task prioritization (SOA effect) is modulated as a function of Task 2 effector system. The results indicate a modulation of SOA effects when the same (oculomotor) Task 1 is combined with a vocal versus a manual Task 2. This is incompatible with the assumption that SOA effects are solely determined by Task 1 response selection duration. Instead, they support the view that dual-task processing bottlenecks are resolved by establishing a capacity allocation scheme fed by multiple input factors, including attentional weights associated with particular effector systems.

The effects of cognitive-motor training interventions on executive functions in older people: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Background

Ageing is associated with physical and cognitive decline, affecting independence and quality of life in older people. Recent studies show that in particular executive functions are important for daily-life function and mobility. This systematic review investigated the effectiveness of cognitive-motor training including exergaming on executive function (EF, set-shifting, working memory, inhibitory control) in healthy older people.

Methods

An electronic database search for randomised controlled trials (RCT), controlled clinical trials (CCT) and parallel group trials was performed using MEDLINE, EMBASE, and PsychINFO following PRISMA guidelines. Inclusion criteria were: (1) community-dwelling participants > 60 years without a medical condition or medical treatment, (2) reporting at least one cognitive-motor intervention while standing or walking, (3) use of dual-task interventions using traditional methods or modern technology to deliver a cognitive-motor task, (4) inclusion of at least one cognitive outcome. The PEDro scale was used for quality assessment.

Results

A total of 1557 studies were retrieved, of which 25 studies were included in this review. Eleven studies used a technology-based dual-task intervention, while 14 trials conducted a general cognitive-motor training. The age range of the cohort was 69 to 87 years. The interventions demonstrated positive effects on global cognitive function [mean difference 0.6, 95% CI 0.29–0.90] and inhibitory control [mean difference 0.61, 95% CI 0.28–0.94]. Effects were heterogeneous (I² range: 60–95) and did not remain after a sensitivity analysis. Processing speed and dual-task costs also improved, but meta-analysis was not possible.

Conclusion

Cognitive-motor and technology-based interventions had a positive impact on some cognitive functions. Dual-task interventions led to improvements of domains related global cognitive functions and inhibitory control. Likewise, technology-based exergame interventions improved functions related to processing speed, attentional and inhibitory control. Training interventions with a certain level of exercise load such as progression in difficulty and task specificity were more effective to gain task-related adaptations on cognitive functions.

Combining a Cognitive Concurrent Task with a Motor or Motor-Cognitive Task: Which Is Better to Differentiate Levels of Affectation in Parkinson’s Disease?

Introduction

Cognitive decline usually coexists with motor impairment in PD. Multitask settings provide appropriate measures to evaluate the complex interaction between motor and cognitive impairments. The main objective was to analyze which concurrent task, i. e., motor or hybrid motor-cognitive, in combination with a cognitive task better differentiates between PD patients with mild and moderate levels of disease.

Methods

Thirty-seven individuals (19 male and 18 female) with idiopathic PD performed dual and triple tasks combining a cognitive task (phonemic fluency) with motor (pedaling) and/or cognitive-motor hybrid (tracking) tasks. Mild and moderate disability PD groups were specified considering the Hoehn and Yahr scale. Mixed ANOVA analyses for each of the concurrent task were carried out to test differences between the single and dual or triple condition performances comparing the low and high PD disability groups. Supplementary mixed ANCOVA analysis was performed considering the cognitive status as the covariate.

Results

The only significant differences between disability PD groups were found for performances in the cognitive-motor hybrid (tracking) task, both in dual and triple conditions. Our results showed a better performance for the mild rather than for the moderate disability group in the single condition task and a significant decline of the mild disability group in the dual and triple condition when compared to the levels of those shown by the moderate disability group. The group-condition interaction remained significant when the cognitive status was statistically controlled.

Conclusion

The hybrid of motor-cognitive task combining with a cognitive task (i. e., fluency) successfully differentiated between mild and moderate PD patients in the context of dual and triple multitask sets even when the cognitive status was statistically controlled. Our results highlight the importance of jointly measuring the complex interplay between motor and cognitive skills in PD.

Effect of Auditory or Visual Working Memory Training on Dual-Task Interference

Dual-task interference causes many accidents. Working memory (WM) training has the potential to reduce dual-task interference. However, an effective method of WM training for reducing dual-task interference has not been established. This study aimed to examine whether WM training using auditory stimuli (auditory WM training) or visual stimuli (visual WM training) would more effectively reduce dual-task interference. Twenty-two young adults performed an N-back task with auditory or visual stimuli for auditory or visual WM training, for 2 weeks. The authors assessed dual-task interference before and after each training. The authors used a hierarchic multilevel model for these assessment parameters. As a result, visual WM training might be more effective for reducing dual-task interference than auditory WM training.

Conditional automaticity: interference effects on the implicit memory retrieval process

Many studies have indicated that executing a secondary task during encoding has little influence on implicit memory (priming effect). However, relatively few studies have discussed the effect of interference on implicit memory during retrieval. Our previous studies found asymmetry between implicit encoding and retrieval processes, with the priming effect disrupted by retrieval interference. Therefore, the present study investigated why and how the priming effect is affected by interference at retrieval. We adopted a dual-task paradigm, with a lexical decision task as the memory task and an odd-even decision task as the interference task. The effect of interference during retrieval was assessed by comparing the performance in the interference condition with that in the full-attention condition. In Experiment 1, we observed that the priming effect was absent in the synchronous retrieval interference condition. In Experiment 2, asynchronous interference was also found to block the priming effect. To verify the assumption that the priming effect is sensitive to attentional resource competition during retrieval, we used two different manipulations (an extended stimulus interval in the dual-task paradigm, Experiment 3, and an interference inhibition manipulation, Experiment 4) known to reduce attentional distraction. In these experiments, the priming effect was protected from interference effects. We suggest that implicit memory retrieval could be regarded as a conditional automatic process that depends on a configuration of the cognitive system by attention and task sets. If the limited resources are occupied by another task, the implicit retrieval process can be impacted.

The role of distractor inhibition in the attentional boost effect: evidence from the R/K paradigm

Stimuli presented with targets in a detection task are later recognised more accurately than those presented with distractors, an unusual effect labelled the attentional boost effect (ABE). This effect may reflect an enhancement triggered by target detection, the inhibition of distractor rejection, or some combination of both. To test these possibilities, the present study adopted a baseline similar to that of Swallow and Jiang ([2014b]. The attentional boost effect really is a boost: evidence from a new baseline. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 76(5), 1298-1307); the goal was to separate target-induced enhancements from distractor-induced inhibition. An R/K procedure was applied to further explore the kind of memory that might be affected by target detection or distractor rejection. The results show that the memory advantage for target-paired words was robust relative to that of baseline words; this advantage was mainly observed in R responses. More importantly, a memory reduction was also observed for distractor-paired words relative to baseline words, though this reduction was only observed in R responses. These data led us to conclude that the ABE was triggered by both processes: target-induced enhancement and distractor-induced inhibition. Moreover, both processes were more likely to affect recollection-based recognition.

Dual Task Effects on Visual Attention Capacity in Normal Aging

Older adults show higher dual task performance decrements than younger adults. While this is assumed to be related to attentional capacity reductions, the precise affected functions are not specified. Such specification is, however, possible based on the "theory of visual attention" (TVA) which allows for modeling of distinct attentional capacity parameters. Furthermore, it is unclear whether older adults show qualitatively different attentional effects or whether they show the same effects as younger adults experience under more challenging conditions. By varying the complexity of the secondary task, it is possible to address this question. In our study, participants performed a verbal whole report of briefly presented letter arrays. TVA-based fitting of report performance delivered parameters of visual threshold t0, processing speed C, and visual short-term memory (VSTM) storage capacity K. Furthermore, participants performed a concurrent motor task consisting of continuous tapping of a (simple or complex) sequence. Both TVA and tapping tasks were performed under single and dual task conditions. Two groups of 30 younger adults each performed either the simple or complex tapping, and a group of 30 older adults performed the simple tapping condition. In older participants, VSTM storage capacity declined under dual task conditions. While no such effect was found in younger subjects performing the simple tapping sequence under dual task conditions, the younger group performing the complex tapping task under dual task conditions also showed a significant VSTM capacity reduction. Generally, no significant effect on other TVA parameters or on tapping accuracy was found. Comparable goodness-of-fit measures were obtained for the TVA modeling data in single and dual tasks, indicating that tasks were executed in a qualitatively similar, continuous manner, although quantitatively less efficiently under dual- compared to single-task conditions. Taken together, our results show that the age-specific effects of motor-cognitive dual task interference are reflected by a stronger decline of VSTM storage capacity. They support an interpretation of VSTM as central attentional capacity, which is shared across visual uptake and concurrent motor performance. Capacity limits are reached earlier, and already under lower motor task complexity, in older compared to younger adults.