Foot differentiation and genomic plasticity in Hydra: lessons from the PPOD gene family

Antioxidant production promotes defense mechanism and different gene expression level in Zea mays under abiotic stress

The growth and productivity of maize are severely affected by soil salinity. The crucial determinants for the future performance of plants are productive for seed germination and seedling establishment; however, both stages are liable to soil salinity. For grain, maize is an economically significant crop sensitive to abiotic stresses. However, little is known about defense responses by the salinity-induced antioxidant and oxidative stress in maize. In our work, the commercially available maize variety Raka-Poshi was grown in pots for 30 days under greenhouse conditions. To evaluate the salt-induced oxidative/antioxidant responses in maize for salt stress 0, 25, 50, 75, 100 and 150 mM concentrations, treatments were provided using sodium chloride (NaCl). All the biochemical indices were calculated under all NaCl concentrations, while drought was induced by up to 50% irrigation water. After 30 days of seed germination, the maize leaves were collected for the measurement of lipid peroxidase or malondialdehyde (MDA), glutathione reductase (GR), guaiacol peroxidase (GPOD), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), superoxide dismutase (SOD), lipoxygenase (LOX), catalase (CAT), ascorbate peroxidase (APOD) and glutathione-S-transferase (GST). The results revealed a 47% reduction under 150 mM NaCl and 50% drought stress conditions. The results have shown that the successive increase of NaCl concentrations and drought caused an increase in catalase production. With successive increase in NaCl concentration and drought stress, lower levels of H2O2, SOD, and MDA were detected in maize leaves. The results regarding the morphology of maize seedlings indicated a successive reduction in the root length and shoot length under applications of salt and drought stress, while root-to-shoot weights were found to be increased under drought stress and decreased under salt stress conditions During gene expression analysis collectively indicate that, under drought stress conditions, the expression levels of all nine mentioned enzyme-related genes were consistently downregulated.

The transcription factor Zic4 promotes tentacle formation and prevents epithelial transdifferentiation in Hydra

The molecular mechanisms that maintain cellular identities and prevent dedifferentiation or transdifferentiation remain mysterious. However, both processes are transiently used during animal regeneration. Therefore, organisms that regenerate their organs, appendages, or even their whole body offer a fruitful paradigm to investigate the regulation of cell fate stability. Here, we used Hydra as a model system and show that Zic4, whose expression is controlled by Wnt3/β-catenin signaling and the Sp5 transcription factor, plays a key role in tentacle formation and tentacle maintenance. Reducing Zic4 expression suffices to induce transdifferentiation of tentacle epithelial cells into foot epithelial cells. This switch requires the reentry of tentacle battery cells into the cell cycle without cell division and is accompanied by degeneration of nematocytes embedded in these cells. These results indicate that maintenance of cell fate by a Wnt-controlled mechanism is a key process both during homeostasis and during regeneration.

Seamless integration of bioelectronic interface in an animal model via in vivo polymerization of conjugated oligomers

Leveraging the biocatalytic machinery of living organisms for fabricating functional bioelectronic interfaces, in vivo, defines a new class of micro-biohybrids enabling the seamless integration of technology with living biological systems. Previously, we have demonstrated the in vivo polymerization of conjugated oligomers forming conductors within the structures of plants. Here, we expand this concept by reporting that Hydra, an invertebrate animal, polymerizes the conjugated oligomer ETE-S both within cells that expresses peroxidase activity and within the adhesive material that is secreted to promote underwater surface adhesion. The resulting conjugated polymer forms electronically conducting and electrochemically active μm-sized domains, which are inter-connected resulting in percolative conduction pathways extending beyond 100 μm, that are fully integrated within the Hydra tissue and the secreted mucus. Furthermore, the introduction and in vivo polymerization of ETE-S can be used as a biochemical marker to follow the dynamics of Hydra budding (reproduction) and regeneration. This work paves the way for well-defined self-organized electronics in animal tissue to modulate biological functions and in vivo biofabrication of hybrid functional materials and devices.

Stem cell differentiation trajectories in Hydra resolved at single-cell resolution

The adult Hydra polyp continually renews all of its cells using three separate stem cell populations, but the genetic pathways enabling this homeostatic tissue maintenance are not well understood. We sequenced 24,985 Hydra single-cell transcriptomes and identified the molecular signatures of a broad spectrum of cell states, from stem cells to terminally differentiated cells. We constructed differentiation trajectories for each cell lineage and identified gene modules and putative regulators expressed along these trajectories, thus creating a comprehensive molecular map of all developmental lineages in the adult animal. In addition, we built a gene expression map of the Hydra nervous system. Our work constitutes a resource for addressing questions regarding the evolution of metazoan developmental processes and nervous system function.

Profiling of adhesive-related genes in the freshwater cnidarian Hydra magnipapillata by transcriptomics and proteomics

The differentiated ectodermal basal disc cells of the freshwater cnidarian Hydra secrete proteinaceous glue to temporarily attach themselves to underwater surfaces. Using transcriptome sequencing and a basal disc-specific RNA-seq combined with in situ hybridisation a highly specific set of candidate adhesive genes was identified. A de novo transcriptome assembly of 55,849 transcripts (>200 bp) was generated using paired-end and single reads from Illumina libraries constructed from different polyp conditions. Differential transcriptomics and spatial gene expression analysis by in situ hybridisation allowed the identification of 40 transcripts exclusively expressed in the ectodermal basal disc cells. Comparisons after mass spectrometry analysis of the adhesive secretion showed a total of 21 transcripts to be basal disc specific and eventually secreted through basal disc cells. This is the first study to survey adhesion-related genes in Hydra. The candidate list presented in this study provides a platform for unravelling the molecular mechanism of underwater adhesion of Hydra.

Multi-functionality and plasticity characterize epithelial cells in Hydra

Epithelial sheets, a synapomorphy of all metazoans but porifers, are present as 2 layers in cnidarians, ectoderm and endoderm, joined at their basal side by an extra-cellular matrix named mesoglea. In the Hydra polyp, epithelial cells of the body column are unipotent stem cells that continuously self-renew and concomitantly express their epitheliomuscular features. These multifunctional contractile cells maintain homeostasis by providing a protective physical barrier, by digesting nutrients, by selecting a stable microbiota, and by rapidly closing wounds. In addition, epithelial cells are highly plastic, supporting the adaptation of Hydra to physiological and environmental changes, such as long starvation periods where survival relies on a highly dynamic autophagy flux. Epithelial cells also play key roles in developmental processes as evidenced by the organizer activity they develop to promote budding and regeneration. We propose here an integrative view of the homeostatic and developmental aspects of epithelial plasticity in Hydra.

Horizontal gene transfer contributed to the evolution of extracellular surface structures: the freshwater polyp Hydra is covered by a complex fibrous cuticle containing glycosaminoglycans and proteins of the PPOD and SWT (sweet tooth) families

The single-cell layered ectoderm of the fresh water polyp Hydra fulfills the function of an epidermis by protecting the animals from the surrounding medium. Its outer surface is covered by a fibrous structure termed the cuticle layer, with similarity to the extracellular surface coats of mammalian epithelia. In this paper we have identified molecular components of the cuticle. We show that its outermost layer contains glycoproteins and glycosaminoglycans and we have identified chondroitin and chondroitin-6-sulfate chains. In a search for proteins that could be involved in organising this structure we found PPOD proteins and several members of a protein family containing only SWT (sweet tooth) domains. Structural analyses indicate that PPODs consist of two tandem β-trefoil domains with similarity to carbohydrate-binding sites found in lectins. Experimental evidence confirmed that PPODs can bind sulfated glycans and are secreted into the cuticle layer from granules localized under the apical surface of the ectodermal epithelial cells. PPODs are taxon-specific proteins which appear to have entered the Hydra genome by horizontal gene transfer from bacteria. Their acquisition at the time Hydra evolved from a marine ancestor may have been critical for the transition to the freshwater environment.

Phylogenomics reveals an anomalous distribution of USP genes in metazoans

Members of the universal stress protein (USP) family were originally identified in stressed bacteria on the basis of a shared domain, which has since been reported in a phylogenetically diverse range of prokaryotes, fungi, protists, and plants. Although not previously characterized in metazoans, here we report that USP genes are distributed in animal genomes in a unique pattern that reflects frequent independent losses and independent expansions. Multiple USP loci are present in urochordates as well as all Cnidaria and Lophotrochozoa examined, but none were detected in any of the available ecdysozoan or non-urochordate deuterostome genome data. The vast majority of the metazoan USPs are short, single-domain proteins and are phylogenetically distinct from the prokaryotic, plant, protist, and fungal members of the protein family. Whereas most of the metazoan USP genes contain introns, with few exceptions those in the cnidarian Hydra are intronless and cluster together in phylogenetic analyses. Expression patterns were determined for several cnidarian USPs, including two genes belonging to the intronless clade, and these imply diverse functions. The apparent paradox of implied diversity of roles despite high overall levels of sequence (and implied structural) similarity parallels the situation in bacteria. The absence of USP genes in ecdysozoans and most deuterostomes may be a consequence of functional redundancy or specialization in taxon-specific roles.

Proteomic screen in the simple metazoan Hydra identifies 14-3-3 binding proteins implicated in cellular metabolism, cytoskeletal organisation and Ca2+ signalling

Background

14-3-3 proteins have been implicated in many signalling mechanisms due to their interaction with Ser/Thr phosphorylated target proteins. They are evolutionarily well conserved in eukaryotic organisms from single celled protozoans and unicellular algae to plants and humans. A diverse array of target proteins has been found in higher plants and in human cell lines including proteins involved in cellular metabolism, apoptosis, cytoskeletal organisation, secretion and Ca²⁺ signalling.

Results

We found that the simple metazoan Hydra has four 14-3-3 isoforms. In order to investigate whether the diversity of 14-3-3 target proteins is also conserved over the whole animal kingdom we isolated 14-3-3 binding proteins from Hydra vulgaris using a 14-3-3-affinity column. We identified 23 proteins that covered most of the above-mentioned groups. We also isolated several novel 14-3-3 binding proteins and the Hydra specific secreted fascin-domain-containing protein PPOD. In addition, we demonstrated that one of the 14-3-3 isoforms, 14-3-3 HyA, interacts with one Hydra-Bcl-2 like protein in vitro.

Conclusion

Our results indicate that 14-3-3 proteins have been ubiquitous signalling components since the start of metazoan evolution. We also discuss the possibility that they are involved in the regulation of cell numbers in response to food supply in Hydra.

Molecular phylogenetics in Hydra, a classical model in evolutionary developmental biology

Among the earliest diverging animal phyla are the Cnidaria. Freshwater polyps of the genus Hydra (Cnidaria, Hydrozoa) have long been of general interest because different species of Hydra reveal fundamental principles that underlie development, differentiation, regeneration and also symbiosis. The phylogenetic relationships among the Hydra species most commonly used in current research are not resolved yet. Here we estimate the phylogenetic relations among eight scientifically important members of the genus Hydra with molecular data from two nuclear (18S rDNA, 28S rDNA) and two mitochondrial (16S rRNA, cytochrome oxidase subunit I (COI)) genes. The phylogenetic trees obtained by maximum parsimony (MP), maximum likelihood (ML) and Bayesian inference (BI) methods were generally compatible with present morphological classification patterns. However, the present analysis also bears on several long-standing questions about Hydra systematics and reveals some characteristics of the phylogenetic relationships of this genus that were unknown so far. It indicates that Hydra viridissima, the only species in Hydra, which contains symbiotic algae, might be considered as the sister group to all other species within this genus. Analyses of both nuclear and mitochondrial sequences support the view that Hydra oligactis and Hydra circumcincta are sisters to all other Hydra species. Unexpectedly, we also find that in contrast to its initial description, the strain used for making transgenic Hydra, Hydra vulgaris (strain AEP) is more closely related to Hydra carnea than to other species of Hydra.

Suppression subtractive hybridization identifies novel transcripts in regenerating Hydra littoralis

Despite considerable interest in the biologic processes of regeneration and stem cell activation, little is known about the genes involved in these transformative events. In a Hydra littoralis model of regeneration, we employed a rapid shotgun suppression subtractive hybridization strategy to identify genes that are uniquely expressed in regenerating tissue. With an adaptor-PCR based technique, 16 candidate transcripts were identified, 15 were confirmed unique to mRNA isolated from hydra undergoing regeneration. Of these, 6 were undescribed in GenBank and allied expressed sequence tag (EST) databases (GenBank + EMBL + DDBJ + PDB and the Hydra EST database). BLAST analysis of these sequences identified remarkably similar sequences in anonymous ESTs found in a wide variety of animal species.

Why polyps regenerate and we don't: towards a cellular and molecular framework for Hydra regeneration

The basis for Hydra's enormous regeneration capacity is the "stem cellness" of its epithelium which continuously undergoes self-renewing mitotic divisions and also has the option to follow differentiation pathways. Now, emerging molecular tools have shed light on the molecular processes controlling these pathways. In this review I discuss how the modular tissue architecture may allow continuous replacement of cells in Hydra. I also describe the discovery and regulation of factors controlling the transition from self-renewing epithelial stem cells to differentiated cells.