Exposure to young preferentially activates adult-born neurons in the main olfactory bulb of sheep mothers

Adult neurogenesis and the microbiota-gut-brain axis in farm animals: underestimated and understudied parameters for improving welfare in livestock farming

Welfare in commercial livestock farming is becoming increasingly important in current agriculture research. Unfortunately, there is a lack of understanding about the neuronal mechanisms that underlie well-being on an individual level. Neuroplasticity in the hippocampus, the subventricular zone (SVZ), the olfactory bulb (OB) and the hypothalamus may be essential regulatory components in the context of farm animal behaviour and welfare that may be altered by providing environmental enrichment (EE). The importance of pre-and probiotics as a form of EE and the microbiota-gut-brain axis (MGBA) has come under the spotlight in the last 20 years, particularly in the contexts of research into stress and of stress resilience. However, it could also be an important regulatory system for animal welfare in livestock farming. This review aims to present a brief overview of the effects of EE on physiology and behaviour in farm animals and briefly discusses literature on behavioural flexibility, as well as inter-individual stress-coping styles and their relationship to animal welfare. Most importantly, we will summarise the literature on different forms of neural plasticity in farm animals, focusing on neurogenesis in various relevant brain regions. Furthermore, we will provide a brief outlook connecting these forms of neuroplasticity, stress, EE, the MGBA and welfare measures in modern livestock farming, concentrating on pigs.

The Onset of Maternal Behavior in Sheep and Goats: Endocrine, Sensory, Neural, and Experiential Mechanisms

In sheep and goats, the onset of maternal behavior at parturition is characterized by a first phase called maternal responsiveness during which the mother is attracted to any newborn. In a second phase, called maternal selectivity, the mother establishes a selective bond with her young so that she only accepts it at suckling. After a description of the behavioral expression of both phases, this chapter reviews the physiological, sensory, and neural mechanisms involved. These two behavioral processes are synchronized with parturition by the vaginocervical stimulation induced by the expulsion of the newborn. Olfactory cues provided by the neonate are involved in maternal responsiveness and selectivity. Oxytocin supported by estrogens is the key factor for maternal responsiveness. The neural network involved in maternal responsiveness is mainly hypothalamic and is different from the circuitry involved in selectivity, which mainly concerns olfactory processing regions. Visual and auditory cues are necessary for offspring recognition at a distance. This multisensory recognition suggests that mothers form a mental image of their young. Maternal experience renders mothers more responsive to maternally relevant physiology and to young-related sensory inputs.

Exercise ameliorates aberrant synaptic plasticity without enhancing adult-born cell survival in the hippocampus of serotonin transporter knockout mice

Deficits in hippocampal cellular and synaptic plasticity are frequently associated with cognitive and mood disorders, and indeed common mechanisms of antidepressants are thought to involve neuroplastic processes. Here, we investigate hippocampal adult-born cell survival and synaptic plasticity (long-term potentiation, LTP, and long-term depression, LTD) in serotonin transporter (5-HTT) knockout (KO) mice. From 8 weeks of age, mice either continued in standard-housing conditions or were given access to voluntary running wheels for 1 month. Electrophysiology was performed on hippocampal slices to measure LTP and LTD, and immunohistochemistry was used to assess cell proliferation and subsequent survival in the dentate gyrus. The results revealed a reduced LTP in 5-HTT KO mice that was restored to wild-type (WT) levels after chronic exercise. While LTD appeared normal in 5-HTT KO, exercise decreased the magnitude of LTD in both WT and 5-HTT KO mice. Furthermore, although 5-HTT KO mice had normal hippocampal adult-born cell survival, they did not benefit from the pro-proliferative effects of exercise observed in WT animals. Taken together, these findings suggest that reduced 5-HTT expression is associated with significant alterations to functional neuroplasticity. Interestingly, 5-HTT appeared necessary for exercise-induced augmentation of adult-born hippocampal cell survival, yet exercise corrected the LTP impairment displayed by 5-HTT KO mice. Together, our findings further highlight the salience of serotonergic signalling in mediating the neurophysiological benefits of exercise.

Sexually dimorphic effects of prolactin treatment on the onset of puberty and olfactory function in mice

The onset of puberty is associated with the psychophysiological maturation of the adolescent to an adult capable of reproduction when olfactory signals play an important role. This period begins with the secretion of the gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) from GnRH neurons within the hypothalamus. This is regulated by kisspeptin neurons that express high levels of transmembrane prolactin receptors (PRLR) that bind to and are activated by prolactin (PRL). The elevated levels of serum PRL found during lactation, or caused by chronic PRL infusion, decreases the secretion of gonadotropins and kisspeptin and compromised the estrous cyclicity and the ovulation. In the present work, we aimed to evaluate the effects of either increased or decreased PRL circulating levels within the peripubertal murine brain by administration of PRL or treatment with cabergoline (Cab) respectively. We showed that either treatment delayed the onset of puberty in females, but not in males. This was associated with the augmentation of the PRL receptor (Prlr) mRNA expression in the arcuate nucleus and decreased Kiss1 expression in the anteroventral periventricular zone. Then, during adulthood, we assessed the activation of the mitral and granular cells of the main (MOB) and accessory olfactory bulb (AOB) by cFos immunoreactivity (ir) after the exposure to soiled bedding of the opposite sex. In the MOB, the PRL treatment promoted an increased cFos-ir of the mitral cells of males and females. In the granular cells of male of either treatment an augmented activation was observed. In the AOB, an impaired cFos-ir was observed in PRL and Cab treated females after exposure to male soiled bedding. However, in males, only Cab impaired its activation. No effects were observed in the AOB-mitral cells. In conclusion, our results demonstrate that PRL contributes to pubertal development and maturation of the MOB-AOB during the murine juvenile period in a sex-dependent way.

The neural mechanisms and consequences of paternal caregiving

In recent decades, human sociocultural changes have increased the numbers of fathers that are involved in direct caregiving in Western societies. This trend has led to a resurgence of interest in understanding the mechanisms and effects of paternal care. Across the animal kingdom, paternal caregiving has been found to be a highly malleable phenomenon, presenting with great variability among and within species. The emergence of paternal behaviour in a male animal has been shown to be accompanied by substantial neural plasticity and to be shaped by previous and current caregiving experiences, maternal and infant stimuli and ecological conditions. Recent research has allowed us to gain a better understanding of the neural basis of mammalian paternal care, the genomic and circuit-level mechanisms underlying paternal behaviour and the ways in which the subcortical structures that support maternal caregiving have evolved into a global network of parental care. In addition, the behavioural, neural and molecular consequences of paternal caregiving for offspring are becoming increasingly apparent. Future cross-species research on the effects of absence of the father and the transmission of paternal influences across generations may allow research on the neuroscience of fatherhood to impact society at large in a number of important ways.

The dynamic serotonin system of the maternal brain

Many pregnant and postpartum women worldwide suffer from high anxiety and/or depression, which can have detrimental effects on maternal and infant well-being. The first-line pharmacotherapies for prepartum and postpartum affective disorders continue to be the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), despite the lack of large well-controlled studies demonstrating their efficacy in reproducing women and the potential for fetal/neonatal exposure to the drugs. Prepartum or postpartum use of SSRIs or other drugs that modulate the brain's serotonin system is also troubling because very little is known about the typical, let alone the atypical, changes that occur in the female central serotonin system across reproduction. We do know from a handful of studies of women and female laboratory rodents that numerous aspects of the central serotonin system are naturally dynamic across reproduction and are also affected by pregnancy stress (a major predisposing factor for maternal psychopathology). Thus, it should not be assumed that the maternal central serotonin system being targeted by SSRIs is identical to non-parous females or males. More information about the normative and stress-derailed changes in the maternal central serotonin system is essential for understanding how serotonin is involved in the etiology of, and the best use of SSRIs for potentially treating, affective disorders in the pregnant and postpartum populations.

Adult mammalian neurogenesis and motivated behaviors

Adult neurogenesis continues to captivate the curiosity of the scientific community; and researchers seem to have a particular interest in identifying the functional implications of such plasticity. While the majority of research focuses on the association between adult neurogenesis and learning and memory (including spatial learning associated with hippocampal neurogenesis and olfactory discrimination associated with neurogenesis in the olfactory system), the following review will explore the link to motivated behaviors. In particular, goal-directed behaviors such as sociosexual, parental, aggressive, as well as depression- and anxiety-like behaviors and their reciprocal association to adult neurogenesis will be evaluated. The review will detail research in humans and other mammalian species. Furthermore, the potential mechanisms underlying these neurogenic alterations will be highlighted. Lastly, the review will conclude with a discussion on the functional significance of these newly generated cells in mediating goal-directed behaviors.

Adult Neurogenesis in Sheep: Characterization and Contribution to Reproduction and Behavior

Sheep have many advantages to study neurogenesis in comparison to the well-known rodent models. Their development and life expectancy are relatively long and they possess a gyrencephalic brain. Sheep are also seasonal breeders, a characteristic that allows studying the involvement of hypothalamic neurogenesis in the control of seasonal reproduction. Sheep are also able to individually recognize their conspecifics and develop selective and lasting bonds. Adult olfactory neurogenesis could be adapted to social behavior by supporting recognition of conspecifics. The present review reveals the distinctive features of the hippocampal, olfactory, and hypothalamic neurogenesis in sheep. In particular, the organization of the subventricular zone and the dynamic of neuronal maturation differs from that of rodents. In addition, we show that various physiological conditions, such as seasonal reproduction, gestation, and lactation differently modulate these three neurogenic niches. Last, we discuss recent evidence indicating that hypothalamic neurogenesis acts as an important regulator of the seasonal control of reproduction and that olfactory neurogenesis could be involved in odor processing in the context of maternal behavior.