hIL-15-gene modified human natural killer cells (NKL-IL15) exhibit anti-human leukemia functions

Optimized expression of human interleukin-15 in Nicotiana benthamiana and in vitro assessment of its activity on human keratinocytes

Human interleukin-15 (hIL-15) is a cytokine essential for immune modulation with therapeutic applications in cancer and chronic wound healing. Although hIL-15 is commercially available, large-scale production studies remain limited. With promising clinical trial results, demand for hIL-15 is expected to rise. Plant expression systems offer a sustainable, low-cost alternative for rapid biopharmaceutical production. In this study, we optimized hIL-15 expression in Nicotiana benthamiana and assessed its physicochemical properties and biological activity. We fused hIL-15 to the Fc domain of human IgG1 for efficient purification. Through optimization of the pre- and post-infiltration conditions, we achieved transient expression and recovery at 4 dpi, yielding 33.8 µg/g fresh weight. Peptide mapping confirmed 97 % overall sequence coverage of the primary structure. Treatment with plant-produced hIL-15-Fc effectively promoted human keratinocyte HaCaT cell proliferation and migration in vitro. These findings demonstrated the potential of plant-based platforms for producing therapeutic recombinant hIL-15 that support wound healing.

Killing the killers: Natural killer cell therapy targeting glioma stem cells in high-grade glioma

High-grade gliomas (HGGs), including glioblastoma (GBM) in adults and diffuse intrinsic pontine glioma (DIPG) in children, are among the most aggressive and deadly brain tumors. A key factor in their resilience is the presence of glioma stem cells (GSCs), which drive tumor initiation, progression, and resistance to treatment. Targeting and eradicating GSCs holds potential for curing both GBM and DIPG. Natural killer (NK) cells, as part of the innate immune system, naturally recognize and destroy malignant cells. Recent advances in NK cell-based therapies, such as chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-NK cells, NK cell engagers, and NK cell-derived exosomes, offer promising approaches for treating GBM and DIPG, particularly by addressing the persistence of GSCs. This review highlights these advancements, explores challenges such as the blood-brain barrier and the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment, and proposes future directions for improving and clinically advancing these NK cell-based therapies for HGGs.

NK cell-based immunotherapy for hepatocellular carcinoma: Challenges and opportunities

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) remains one of the most challenging malignancies globally, characterized by significant heterogeneity, late-stage diagnosis, and resistance to treatment. In recent years, the advent of immune-checkpoint blockades (ICBs) and targeted immune cell therapies has marked a substantial advancement in HCC treatment. However, the clinical efficacy of these existing therapies is still limited, highlighting the urgent need for new breakthroughs. Natural killer (NK) cells, a subset of the innate lymphoid cell family, have shown unique advantages in the anti-tumour response. With increasing evidence suggesting the crucial role of dysfunctional NK cells in the pathogenesis and progression of HCC, considerable efforts have been directed toward exploring NK cells as a potential therapeutic target for HCC. In this review, we will provide an overview of the role of NK cells in normal liver immunity and in HCC, followed by a detailed discussion of various NK cell-based immunotherapies and their potential applications in HCC treatment.

Novaferon gene modification promotes NK92 cell anti-tumor activity

With significant developments in chimeric antigen receptor T-cell therapy, adoptive immunotherapy has unlocked new levels of treatment for malignancies. Natural killer (NK) cells are promising alternative immune effector cells for this strategy. Multiple anti-tumor therapies are largely dependent on type I interferon (IFN) signaling. Type I IFNs enhance NK cell cytotoxicity. Novaferon (nova) is an unnatural, novel IFN-like protein produced by gene shuffling of IFN-α with strong biological activity. To augment the antitumor activity of NK cells, we generated NK92-nova cells that stably express nova. We found that NK92-nova cells mediated enhanced pan-cancer antitumor activity compared to NK92-vec cells. The increased antitumor activity was associated with the enhanced secretion of cytokines, such as IFN-γ, perforin, and granzyme B. Meanwhile, most of the activating receptors were upregulated in the NK92-nova cells. After co-culture with NK92-nova cells, the expression of NKG2D ligands on the HepG2 cells increased, resulting in an enhanced susceptibility of HepG2 cells to NK92 cell-mediated cytolysis. NK92-nova cells significantly inhibited HepG2 tumor growth in a xenograft model without systemic toxicity. Therefore, NK92-nova cells are a novel and safe strategy for cancer immunotherapy.

The role of interleukin-15 in the development and treatment of hematological malignancies

Cytokines are a vital component of the immune system that controls the activation and growth of blood cells. However, chronic overexpression of cytokines can trigger cellular events leading to malignant transformation. The cytokine interleukin-15 (IL-15) is of particular interest, which has been shown to contribute to the development and progression of various hematological malignancies. This review will provide an overview of the impact of the immunopathogenic function of IL-15 by studying its role in cell survival, proliferation, inflammation, and treatment resistance. We will also review therapeutic approaches for inhibiting IL-15 in blood cancers.

Reevaluation of NOD/SCID Mice as NK Cell-Deficient Models

Objective

Natural killer (NK) cell-deficient mice are useful models in biomedical research. NOD/SCID mice have been used as a model of this type in research. However, the actual status of NK cells in NOD/SCID mice and CB17/SCID mice in comparison with that in BALB/c mice has not been sufficiently evaluated.

Methods

Splenocytes from naïve or poly(I:C)-treated mice were isolated for phenotyping and analysis of cytotoxicity-related molecules and inhibitory receptors; for cytotoxicity assay, purified NK cells were also used.

Results

The proportion of splenic NK cells did not differ significantly between NOD/SCID and CB17/SCID mice. The perforin levels in NK cells were similar between the poly(I:C)-treated CB17/SCID and NOD/SCID mice, while the granzyme B and NKG2A/C/E levels in NK cells from NOD/SCID mice were significantly lower than those from CB17/SCID mice. Moreover, the NKG2D and Ly49A levels in NK cells from NOD/SCID mice were higher than those from CB17/SCID. The splenocytes from CB17/SCID mice showed higher cytotoxicity than those from NOD/SCID mice, while the cytotoxicity of purified NK cells basically did not differ between the two strains. After in vitro stimulation with cytokines, the splenocytes from CB17/SCID mice showed higher IFN-γ production than those from NOD/SCID mice; however, NK cells did not.

Conclusion

There was no significant difference in the proportion of splenic NK cells between CB17/SCID and NOD/SCID mice, and the function of NK cells was only partially compromised in NOD/SCID mice. Caution should be taken when considering the use of NOD/SCID mice as an NK-deficient model.

Chimeric antigen receptor- and natural killer cell receptor-engineered innate killer cells in cancer immunotherapy

Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-engineered T-cell (CAR-T) therapy has demonstrated impressive therapeutic efficacy against hematological malignancies, but multiple challenges have hindered its application, particularly for the eradication of solid tumors. Innate killer cells (IKCs), particularly NK cells, NKT cells, and γδ T cells, employ specific antigen-independent innate tumor recognition and cytotoxic mechanisms that simultaneously display high antitumor efficacy and prevent tumor escape caused by antigen loss or modulation. IKCs are associated with a low risk of developing GVHD, thus offering new opportunities for allogeneic "off-the-shelf" cellular therapeutic products. The unique innate features, wide tumor recognition range, and potent antitumor functions of IKCs make them potentially excellent candidates for cancer immunotherapy, particularly serving as platforms for CAR development. In this review, we first provide a brief summary of the challenges hampering CAR-T-cell therapy applications and then discuss the latest CAR-NK-cell research, covering the advantages, applications, and clinical translation of CAR- and NK-cell receptor (NKR)-engineered IKCs. Advances in synthetic biology and the development of novel genetic engineering techniques, such as gene-editing and cellular reprogramming, will enable the further optimization of IKC-based anticancer therapies.

The Role of Natural Killer Cells in Soft Tissue Sarcoma: Prospects for Immunotherapy

Simple Summary

Soft-tissue sarcomas (STS) represent about 80% of sarcomas, and are a heterogeneous group of rare and malignant tumors. Morphological evaluation has been the standard model for the diagnosis of sarcomas, and even in samples with similar characteristics, they present genetic differences, which further increases the diversity of sarcomas. This variety is one of the main challenges for the classification and understanding of STS patterns, as well as for the respective treatments, which further decreases patient survival (<5 years). Natural Killer (NK) cells have a fundamental role in the control and immune surveillance of cancer development, progression and metastases. Notwithstanding the scarcity of studies to characterize NK cells in STS, it is noteworthy that the progression of these malignancies is associated with altered NK cells. These findings support the additional need to explore NK cell-based immunotherapy in STS; some clinical trials, although very tentatively, are already underway.

Abstract

Soft-tissue sarcomas (STS) represent about 80% of sarcomas, and are a heterogeneous group of rare and malignant tumors. STS arise from mesenchymal tissues and can grow into structures such as adipose tissue, muscles, nervous tissue and blood vessels. Morphological evaluation has been the standard model for the diagnosis of sarcomas, and even in samples with similar characteristics, they present a diversity in cytogenetic and genetic sequence alterations, which further increases the diversity of sarcomas. This variety is one of the main challenges for the classification and understanding of STS patterns, as well as for their respective treatments, which further decreases patient survival (<5 years). Despite some studies, little is known about the immunological profile of STS. As for the immunological profile of STS in relation to NK cells, there is also a shortage of studies. Observations made in solid tumors show that the infiltration of NK cells in tumors is associated with a good prognosis of the disease. Notwithstanding the scarcity of studies to characterize NK cells, their receptors, and ligands in STS, it is noteworthy that the progression of these malignancies is associated with altered NK phenotypes. Despite the scarcity of information on the function of NK cells, their phenotypes and their regulatory pathways in STS, the findings of this study support the additional need to explore NK cell-based immunotherapy in STS further. Some clinical trials, very tentatively, are already underway. STS clinical trials are still the basis for adoptive NK-cell and cytokine-based therapy.

An Anti-MICA/B Antibody and IL-15 Rescue Altered NKG2D-Dependent NK Cell Responses in Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Natural killer (NK) cells play a pivotal role in cancer immune surveillance, and activating the receptor/ligand interaction may contribute to control the development and evolution of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). We investigated the role of the natural killer group 2 member D (NKG2D) activating receptor and its ligand, the major histocompatibility complex class I chain-related protein A and B (MICA/B) in patients with cirrhosis and HCC subjected to surgical resection, patients with cirrhosis and no HCC, and healthy donors (HD). The NKG2D-mediated function was determined in peripheral blood (PB), in tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (NK-TIL), and in matched surrounding liver tissue (NK-LIL). A group of patients treated with sorafenib because of clinically advanced HCC was also studied. A humanized anti-MICA/B monoclonal antibody (mAb) was used in in vitro experiments to examine NK cell-mediated antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity. Serum concentrations of soluble MICA/B were evaluated by ELISA. IL-15 stimulation increased NKG2D-dependent activity which, however, remained dysfunctional in PB NK cells from HCC patients, in line with the reduced NKG2D expression on NK cells. NK-TIL showed a lower degranulation ability than NK-LIL, which was restored by IL-15 stimulation. Moreover, in vitro IL-15 stimulation enhanced degranulation and interferon-γ production by PB NK from patients at month one of treatment with sorafenib. Anti-MICA/B mAb associated with IL-15 was able to induce PB NK cytotoxicity for primary HCC cells in HD and patients with HCC, who also showed NK-TIL degranulation for autologous primary HCC cells. Our findings highlight the key role of the NKG2D-MICA/B axis in the regulation of NK cell responses in HCC and provide evidence in support of a potentially important role of anti-MICA/B mAb and IL-15 stimulation in HCC immunotherapy.

Targeting Natural Killer Cells for Tumor Immunotherapy

Natural killer (NK) cells are important innate cytotoxic lymphocytes with a rapid and efficient capacity to recognize and kill tumor cells. In recent years, adoptive transfer of autologous- or allogeneic-activated NK cells has become a promising cellular therapy for cancer. However, the therapeutic efficiency is encouraging in hematopoietic malignancies, but disappointing in solid tumors, for which the use of NK-cell-based therapies presents considerable challenges. It is difficult for NK cells to traffic to, and infiltrate into, tumor sites. NK cell function, phenotype, activation, and persistence are impaired by the tumor microenvironment, even leading to NK cell dysfunction or exhaustion. Many strategies focusing on improving NK cells' durable persistence, activation, and cytolytic activity, including activation with cytokines or analogs, have been attempted. Modifying them with chimeric antigen receptors further increases the targeting specificity of NK cells. Checkpoint blockades can relieve the exhausted state of NK cells. In this review, we discuss how the cytolytic and effector functions of NK cells are affected by the tumor microenvironment and summarize the various immunotherapeutic strategies based on NK cells. In particular, we discuss recent advances in overcoming the suppressive effect of the tumor microenvironment with the aim of enhancing the clinical outcome in solid tumors treated with NK-cell-based immunotherapy.