Screening Test for Silent Aspiration at the Bedside

Digital health technologies in swallowing care from screening to rehabilitation: A narrative review

OBJECTIVES

Digital health technologies (DHTs) have rapidly advanced in the past two decades, through developments in mobile and wearable devices and most recently with the explosion of artificial intelligence (AI) capabilities and subsequent extension into the health space. DHT has myriad potential applications to deglutology, many of which have undergone promising investigations and developments in recent years. We present the first literature review on applications of DHT in swallowing health, from screening to therapeutics. Public health interventions for swallowing care are increasingly needed in the setting of aging populations in the West and East Asia, and DHT may offer a scalable and low-cost solution.

METHODS

A narrative review was performed using PubMed and Google Scholar to identify recent research on applications of AI and digital health in swallow practice. Database searches, conducted in September 2024, included terms such as "digital," "AI," "machine learning," "tools" in combination with "deglutition," "Otolaryngology," "Head and Neck," "speech language pathology," "swallow," and "dysphagia." Primary literature pertaining to digital health in deglutology was included for review.

RESULTS

We review the various applications of DHT in swallowing care, including prevention, screening, diagnosis, treatment planning and rehabilitation.

CONCLUSION

DHT may offer innovative and scalable solutions for swallowing care as public health needs grow and in the setting of limited specialized healthcare workforce. These technological advances are also being explored as time and resource saving solutions at many points of care in swallow practice. DHT could bring affordable and accurate information for self-management of dysphagia to broader patient populations that otherwise lack access to expert providers.

Evaluation of the performance of screening tools for dysphagia in older adults: A diagnostic meta-analysis

This systematic review evaluated the diagnostic accuracy of multiple screening tools for dysphagia in older adults. The analysis covered 30 studies involving 13 tools and 2,697 participants. The results showed that the volume viscosity swallow test performed best in sensitivity, specificity, and area under the curve, making it a recommended screening tool. Other tools have low sensitivity, unstable results or insufficient research and need to be further validated. Overall, this study provides an important reference for the screening of dysphagia in older adults.

Automatic Clinical Assessment of Swallowing Behavior and Diagnosis of Silent Aspiration Using Wireless Multimodal Wearable Electronics

Dysphagia is more common in conditions such as stroke, Parkinson's disease, and head and neck cancer. This can lead to pneumonia, choking, malnutrition, and dehydration. Currently, the diagnostic gold standard uses radiologic imaging, the videofluoroscopic swallow study (VFSS); however, it is expensive and necessitates specialized facilities and trained personnel. Although several devices attempt to address the limitations, none offer the clinical-grade quality and accuracy of the VFSS. Here, this study reports a wireless multimodal wearable system with machine learning for automatic, accurate clinical assessment of swallowing behavior and diagnosis of silent aspirations from dysphagia patients. The device includes a kirigami-structured electrode that suppresses changes in skin contact impedance caused by movements and a microphone with a gel layer that effectively blocks external noise for measuring high-quality electromyograms and swallowing sounds. The deep learning algorithm offers the classification of swallowing patterns while diagnosing silent aspirations, with an accuracy of 89.47%. The demonstration with post-stroke patients captures the system's significance in measuring multiple physiological signals in real-time for detecting swallowing disorders, validated by comparing them with the VFSS. The multimodal electronics can ensure a promising future for dysphagia healthcare and rehabilitation therapy, providing an accurate, non-invasive alternative for monitoring swallowing and aspiration events.

Effect of bolus property on swallowing dynamics in patients with dysphagia

BACKGROUND

Modification of foods or liquids is commonly administered as part of dysphagia treatment. However, no consensus exists on the parameters for defining texture-modified food for patients with dysphagia.

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of food/liquid material on swallowing physiology in patients with dysphagia and to discuss the optimal food choice for direct swallowing therapy.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A total of 140 patients underwent a videofluoroscopic swallowing study using three test foods/liquids: 3 mL of mildly thick liquid (Thick liquid), jelly made of agar and polysaccharide (Jelly) and jelly made of pectin (Reset gel). Outcome measures of videofluoroscopic images, bolus transit time and hyoid movements were compared.

RESULTS

The frequency of chewing movements was highest for Jelly, followed by Reset gel and Thick liquid. While the probability of oral residue was the highest for Reset gel, pharyngeal residue after swallowing was high for Thick liquid as compared to Jelly and Reset gel. Oral transit time and pharyngeal transit time for Thick liquid were significantly smaller than that for Jelly and Reset gel. Pharyngeal delay time was significantly smaller for Thick liquid than that for Jelly and Reset gel. There was no difference in hyoid elevation time and hyoid movement time among the conditions.

CONCLUSION

Mildly thick liquid material may be optimal for patients with primarily oral motor function impairment and jelly, such as Reset gel, may be more suitable for patients with primarily pharyngeal motor function impairment or oral and pharyngeal coordinative motor function decline.

A systematic review and meta-analysis of acupuncture in aspiration caused by post-stroke dysphagia

Objective

This systematic review and meta-analysis aims to systematically evaluate the effectiveness and safety of acupuncture in the treatment of aspiration caused by post-stroke dysphagia.

Methods

A computer search was conducted in nine databases, including the China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), China Science and Technology Journal (VIP), Wan-fang Database, China Biomedical Literature Database (CBM), PubMed, Web of Science, Cochrane Library, Embase, and Chinese Clinical Trial Registry (ChiCTR), from their inception until April 2024. Clinical randomized controlled trials comparing acupuncture combined therapy or single therapy with control interventions for the treatment of aspiration caused by post-stroke dysphagia were included. The primary outcome measure was the Penetration Aspiration Scale (PAS), and secondary outcome measures included the overall effective rate, video fluoroscopic swallowing study (VFSS), and hyoid bone displacement. The statistical analysis was performed using RevMan 5.3 and Stata 16.0.

Results

A total of 16 articles involving 1,284 patients were included. The meta-analysis results showed that acupuncture combined therapy or single therapy was more effective in improving PAS scores compared to conventional rehabilitation therapy or balloon dilation of the catheter [WMD = -1.05, 95% CI (-1.30, -0.80), Z = 0.82, p = 0.00 < 0.05]. It was also more effective in improving VFSS scores [WMD = 1.32, 95% CI (0.08, 2.55), Z = 2.09, p = 0.04 < 0.05] and hyoid bone displacement [WMD = 2.02, 95% CI (0.86, 3.18), Z = 3.41, p = 0.00 < 0.05]. Additionally, acupuncture had a higher overall effective rate [WMD = 1.21, 95% CI (1.14, 1.29), Z = 5.76, p = 0.00 < 0.05] and a lower incidence of adverse events. Sensitivity analysis indicated that the literature had minimal impact on the results, and bias tests showed no publication bias.

Conclusion

Acupuncture combined therapy and acupuncture single therapy can effectively improve aspiration caused by post-stroke dysphagia with a low incidence of adverse events. However, due to the low quality of the included literature, more high-quality randomized controlled trials are still needed to confirm the effectiveness and safety of acupuncture in the treatment of aspiration caused by post-stroke dysphagia.

Systematic review registration

https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/display_record.php?ID=CRD42023462707, identifier CRD42023462707.

Ultrasonographic Evaluation of Upper Esophageal Sphincter for Dysphagia During the Acute Postoperative Phase of Anterior Cervical Surgery

STUDY DESIGN

A retrospective study.

OBJECTIVE

To verify the pathophysiology of dysphagia during the acute postoperative phase of anterior cervical surgery and to identify its predictive features, using ultrasonographic (US) examination for upper esophageal sphincter (UES).

SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA

There are no clinical studies investigating dysphagia after anterior cervical surgery, using US examination for UES.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We enrolled patients who underwent anterior cervical spine surgery between August 2018 and March 2022. Dysphagia was evaluated using the Eating Assessment Tool-10 (EAT-10) questionnaires. The US examination was performed preoperatively and 2 weeks postoperatively. Three US parameters for morphologic measurements (outer diameter, inner diameter, and muscle thickness) and 4 for functional measurements (displacement, time to relax, passing duration, and time to contract) were assessed. To verify the pathophysiology of postoperative dysphagia, we examined the change in the ratios of US parameters (=US parameter 2 weeks postoperatively /US parameter at baseline ) and the existence of significant correlations with change in the EAT-10 score (=EAT-10 2 weeks postoperatively -EAT-10 at baseline ). To identify the predictive features, the baseline US parameters were compared between dysphagia (+) and dysphagia (-) groups.

RESULTS

A total of 46 patients (mean age, 61.3 y; 78.3% male) were included for analysis. A greater increase of the EAT-10 score after surgery was positively correlated with change ratios of the muscle thickness and time to contract and negatively with change ratio of the inner diameter. The dysphagia (+) group exhibited significantly greater inner diameter and smaller muscle thickness at baseline than the dysphagia (-) group.

CONCLUSION

Dysphagia during the acute postoperative phase of anterior cervical surgery is caused by the physical narrowing of the inner lumen due to muscle thickening of the UES and sphincter contractile dysfunction. In addition, a baseline UES morphology characterized by a greater inner diameter and a thinner muscle layer is predictive of postoperative dysphagia.

Cervical percutaneous interferential current stimulation improves citric acid cough tests in patients with Parkinson's disease on medication

Aspiration pneumonia is the leading cause of death in patients with Parkinson's disease. The incidence of silent aspiration is high in such patients owing to decreased pharyngeal and laryngeal sensation; thus, interventions for this condition may help prevent pneumonia. In this single-arm, open-label study, we used a cervical percutaneous interferential current stimulation device to activate pharyngeal and laryngeal sensory nerves. We evaluated its effectiveness in patients with Hoehn-Yahr stages 2-4 Parkinson's disease. The primary endpoint was the proportion of patients with a normal cough reflex after consuming 1% citric acid at the end of the intervention compared with baseline measurements. In total, 25 patients received neck percutaneous interferential current stimulation for 20 min twice weekly for 8 weeks. Afterward, the proportion of patients with a normal cough reflex after 1% citric acid consumption increased significantly (p = 0.001), whereas other indicators, such as tongue pressure, peak expiratory flow, and penetration or aspiration during videofluoroscopic examination, remained unchanged. A longer duration of illness, higher Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale total scores, and higher levodopa equivalent daily doses were significantly associated with improved cough test outcomes. Hence, cervical percutaneous interferential current stimulation significantly improved cough reflexes and may improve silent aspiration. Trial Registration: Japan Registry of Clinical Trials, jRCTs062220013, first registered 09/05/2022.

Kinematic analysis of chewing and swallowing function after cervical spine surgery

PURPOSE

Although movement of the hyoid bone is different for masticatory swallowing and liquid swallowing in normal subjects, it has not been studied after cervical spine surgery. Therefore, we analyzed the swallowing dynamics of masticatory swallowing in anterior cervical spine disease surgery using foods that require chewing close to actual meals.

METHODS

A day before and one week after the surgery, a videofluoroscopic swallow study (VFSS) was performed, and the distance of hyoid bone movement in the anterior and superior directions, amount of opening of the upper esophageal sphincter (UES), time of passage through the pharynx, number of swallows, and amount of pharyngeal residual were measured on the VFSS images during a masticatory swallow of corn flakes. The swallowing function was evaluated by DSS (dysphagia severity scale) and FOIS (functional oral intake scale). Imaging software was used for the measurements.

RESULTS

Postoperative hyoid movement during masticatory swallowing was not significantly different for anterior movement but significantly limited in upward movement (p = 0.002); UES opening volume was significantly decreased (p < 0.001), and bolus residue was significantly worse (p < 0.001), compared to preoperative. The pharyngeal transit time was not significantly different; the number of swallows increased (p < 0.001), along with DSS (p < 0.001) and FOIS (p < 0.001), with significant differences before and after surgery, indicating worsened swallowing function.

CONCLUSIONS

Swallowing function worsened in masticatory swallowing after surgery for cervical spine disease, mainly due to the restriction of upward movement of the hyoid bone and the resulting increase in pharyngeal residuals after swallowing.

Swallowing dysfunctions in patients with disorders of consciousness: Evidence from neuroimaging data, assessment, and management

Following severe brain injuries, a subset of patients may remain in an altered state of consciousness; most of these patients require artificial feeding. Currently, a functional oral phase and the presence of exclusive oral feeding may constitute signs of consciousness. Additionally, the presence of pharyngo-laryngeal secretions, saliva aspiration, cough reflex and tracheostomy are related to the level of consciousness. However, the link between swallowing and consciousness is yet to be fully understood. The primary aim of this review is to establish a comprehensive overview of the relationship between an individual's conscious behaviour and swallowing (reflexive and voluntary). Previous studies of brain activation during volitional and non-volitional swallowing tasks in healthy subjects are also reviewed. We demonstrate that the areas activated by voluntary swallowing tasks (primary sensorimotor, cingulate, insula, premotor, supplementary motor, cerebellum, and operculum) are not specific to deglutitive function but are shared with other motor tasks and brain networks involved in consciousness. This review also outlines suitable assessment and treatment methods for dysphagic patients with disorders of consciousness. Finally, we propose that markers of swallowing could contribute to the development of novel diagnostic guidelines for patients with disorders of consciousness.

Diagnostic Accuracy of Mann Assessment of Swallowing Ability for Predicting Dysphagia in Patients with Psychiatric Disorders

Dysphagia occurs in various diseases and constitutes a major concern in patients with psychiatric disorders. The Mann Assessment of Swallowing Ability (MASA) comprises 24 clinical parameters designed to identify swallowing disorders. One item in MASA, the "gag reflex", involves an unpleasant stimulus, which means that it is often omitted when the test is administered. The aims of this study were to determine the presence/absence of dysphagia in patients with psychiatric disorders using the MASA and determine its diagnostic accuracy when the gag reflex item was excluded in patients with psychiatric disorders. The study participants comprised patients admitted to a hospital psychiatric ward in whom dysphagia had been suspected based on oral intake status. The following items were determined: age, total MASA score (23 out of 24 items, giving a score out of 195 points), body mass index score, milligram equivalents of chlorpromazine, and the Food Intake Level Scale score. The patients were divided into two groups according to the presence or absence of swallowing problems as assessed by videoendoscopic or videofluoroscopic examination. The scores for each item investigated in the MASA, including the total score, were compared between the two groups. Receiver operating characteristic curve analysis was carried out to determine the optimum cut-off value. The total MASA score, which excluded the "gag reflex" item, was lower in the problematic swallowing group than in the non-problematic swallowing group. The MASA scores for cooperation, respiratory, dysphasia, tongue coordination, oral preparation, pharyngeal phase, and pharyngeal response tended to be lower in the problematic swallowing group. Furthermore, an optimum cut-off value of 169 points (sensitivity, 0.92; specificity, 0.68; likelihood ratio, 2.84) was identified. These results indicate that the cut-off MASA score is effective in screening for dysphagia, even when the "gag reflex" item is excluded.

Acoustic Screening of the "Wet voice": Proof of Concept in an ex vivo Canine Laryngeal Model

BACKGROUND

Current protocols for bedside swallow evaluation have high rates of false negative results. Though experts are not consistently able to screen for aspiration risk by assessing vocal quality, there is emerging evidence that vocal acoustic parameters are significantly different in patients at risk of aspiration. Herein, we aimed to determine whether the presence of material on the vocal folds in an excised canine laryngeal model may have an impact on acoustic and aerodynamic measures.

METHODS

Two ex vivo canine larynges were tested. Three liquids of different viscosities (1:100 diluted glycerin, pure glycerin, and honey-thick Varibar) were placed on the vocal folds at a constant volume. Acoustic and aerodynamic measures were obtained in both adducted and abducted vocal fold configurations. Intraglottal high-speed imaging was used to approximate the maximum divergence angle of the larynges in the studied conditions and examine its relationship to vocal efficiency (VE) and acoustic measures.

RESULTS

In glottic insufficiency conditions only, we found that several acoustic parameters could predict the presence of material on the vocal folds. Based on the combination of the aerodynamic and acoustic data, we found that decreased spectral energy in the higher harmonics was associated with decreased VE in the presence of material on the vocal folds and/or glottic insufficiency.

CONCLUSION

Decreased spectral energy in the higher harmonics of the voice was found to be a potential biomarker of swallowing dysfunction, as it correlates with decreased vocal efficiency due to material on the vocal folds and/or glottic insufficiency, both of which are known risk factors for aspiration.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

NA Laryngoscope, 133:2517-2524, 2023.

Computer-aided screening of aspiration risks in dysphagia with wearable technology: a Systematic Review and meta-analysis on test accuracy

Aspiration caused by dysphagia is a prevalent problem that causes serious health consequences and even death. Traditional diagnostic instruments could induce pain, discomfort, nausea, and radiation exposure. The emergence of wearable technology with computer-aided screening might facilitate continuous or frequent assessments to prompt early and effective management. The objectives of this review are to summarize these systems to identify aspiration risks in dysphagic individuals and inquire about their accuracy. Two authors independently searched electronic databases, including CINAHL, Embase, IEEE Xplore^® Digital Library, PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science (PROSPERO reference number: CRD42023408960). The risk of bias and applicability were assessed using QUADAS-2. Nine (n = 9) articles applied accelerometers and/or acoustic devices to identify aspiration risks in patients with neurodegenerative problems (e.g., dementia, Alzheimer's disease), neurogenic problems (e.g., stroke, brain injury), in addition to some children with congenital abnormalities, using videofluoroscopic swallowing study (VFSS) or fiberoptic endoscopic evaluation of swallowing (FEES) as the reference standard. All studies employed a traditional machine learning approach with a feature extraction process. Support vector machine (SVM) was the most famous machine learning model used. A meta-analysis was conducted to evaluate the classification accuracy and identify risky swallows. Nevertheless, we decided not to conclude the meta-analysis findings (pooled diagnostic odds ratio: 21.5, 95% CI, 2.7-173.6) because studies had unique methodological characteristics and major differences in the set of parameters/thresholds, in addition to the substantial heterogeneity and variations, with sensitivity levels ranging from 21.7% to 90.0% between studies. Small sample sizes could be a critical problem in existing studies (median = 34.5, range 18-449), especially for machine learning models. Only two out of the nine studies had an optimized model with sensitivity over 90%. There is a need to enlarge the sample size for better generalizability and optimize signal processing, segmentation, feature extraction, classifiers, and their combinations to improve the assessment performance. Systematic Review Registration: (https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/), identifier (CRD42023408960).

A prospective examination of swallow and cough dysfunction after lung transplantation

OBJECTIVES

Swallow and cough dysfunction are possible surgical complications of lung transplantation (LT). We examined voluntary cough strength, sensorimotor reflexive cough integrity, and swallow-related respiratory rate (RR) across swallowing safety and aspiration response groups in recovering LT recipients.

METHODS

Forty-five LT recipients underwent flexible endoscopic evaluation of swallowing indexed by the validated Penetration Aspiration Scale. RR before and after a 3-ounce water drinking task was measured. Voluntary and reflexive cough screening were performed to index motor and sensory outcomes. T-tests, one-way ANOVAs, and chi-square (odds ratios) were used.

RESULTS

60% of patients exhibited laryngeal penetration (n = 27) and 40% demonstrated tracheal aspiration (n = 18); 72% (n = 13) demonstrated silent aspiration. Baseline RR was higher in aspirators versus non-aspirators (26.5 vs. 22.6, p = 0.04) and in silent aspirators compared to non-silent aspirators (27.9 vs. 20.7, p = 0.01). RR change post-swallowing did not differ between aspiration response groups; however, it was significantly higher in aspirators compared to non-aspirators (3 vs. -2, p = 0.02). Compared to non-silent aspirators, silent aspirators demonstrated reduced voluntary cough peak expiratory flow (PEF; 166 vs. 324 L/min, p = 0.01). PEF, motor and urge to cough reflex cough ratings did not differ between aspirators and non-aspirators. Silent aspirators demonstrated a 7.5 times higher odds of failing reflex cough screening compared to non-silent aspirators (p = 0.07).

CONCLUSIONS

During the acute recovery period, all LT participants demonstrated some degree of unsafe swallowing and reduced voluntary cough strength. Silent aspirators exhibited elevated RR, reduced voluntary cough physiologic capacity to defend the airway, and a clinically distinguishable blunted motor response to reflex cough screening.

Bedside evaluation of swallowing function to predict aspiration pneumonia in Duchenne muscular dystrophy

OBJECTIVE

Aspiration pneumonia is one of the leading causes of death in patients with muscular dystrophy; therefore, it is important to predict its occurrence in the clincal setting. We aimed to examine the usefulness of repeated saliva swallowing test (RSST), modified water swallowing test (MWST), and flexible endoscopic evaluation of swallowing (FEES) for evaluating the Hyodo score at the bedside, to predict the risk of aspiration pneumonia in patients with Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD).

METHODS

In this retrospective cohort study involving 43 patients, we evaluated the swallowing function using the RSST, MWST, and FEES, and predicted the likelihood of aspiration pneumonia within 2 years after the assessment. The Hyodo score, a scoring system for evaluating the swallowing function determined by the FEES, was used.

RESULTS

Pneumonia was observed in 14 patients (32.6%). The RSST was not significantly useful for predicting the onset of pneumonia. The MWST was reported to have a cutoff value of < 4 points. Significantly more patients in the pneumonia group had an MWST score of < 4 points. The results revealed that the occurrence of pneumonia could be predicted based on a Hyodo cutoff score of ≥ 6. Significantly more patients in the pneumonia group had an MWST score of < 4 or a Hyodo score of ≥ 6.

CONCLUSIONS

Combining MWST and FEES is useful for evaluating the bedside swallowing function and predicting the onset of pneumonia.

A Prospective Validation Study of the Functional Bedside Aspiration Screen with Endoscopy: Is It Clinically Applicable in Acute Stroke?

The purpose of this study was to investigate the reliability of the novel Functional Bedside Aspiration Screen (FBAS) to predict aspiration risk in acute stroke and to guide initial therapy needs. We conducted a prospective validation study of the FBAS 10-point scale in 101 acute ischemic stroke patients. Outcome measures were compared with the Penetration Aspiration Scale (PAS) via the Flexible Endoscopic Swallowing Study. Correlations with the Functional Oral Intake Scale (FOIS) and the Therapy Requirement Scale (TRS) were analyzed. We observed a 65.8% sensitivity and 70.2% specificity (p = 0.004) for predicting penetration risk (for PAS score ≥ 3) and a 73% sensitivity and 62% specificity for predicting aspiration risk (PAS score ≥ 6). For patients with a modified ranking scale 0-2 (n = 44) on admission, the predictive measurements of the FBAS yielded sensitivity and specificity values of 66.7% and 88.6% (p = 0.011). A significant negative correlation was found with PAS measurements, whereas a positive correlation was observed regarding FOIS. Significantly lower FBAS scores were observed in patients with high requirements for therapeutic interventions and dietary modification. FBAS may be regarded as an alternative time-efficient clinical support tool in settings in which instrumentation is not directly accessible. Further studies including a larger cohort of acute stroke patients with more severe neurological deficits are necessary.

Cough Test Results during Screening for Silent Aspiration Are Affected by Risk Factors for Silent Cerebral Infarct in Older Adults with Chronic Disease

The cough reflex does not change with age. However, older adults with chronic diseases often have a reduced cough reflex. The effects of several risk factors on reduced cough sensitivity in older adults remain unclear. This study aims to clarify the risk factors for reduced cough sensitivity in older adults with chronic diseases. This cross-sectional study included participants aged <65 years (young group; n = 21), those aged ≥65 years (older adults with chronic disease group; n = 18), and those with dysphagia (dysphagia group; n = 16). A cough test was performed on all participants using an ultrasonic nebulizer with a mist of 1% w/v citric acid physiologic saline. Cough response was observed in the young (21/21), older adult (9/18), and dysphagia (13/16) groups. The difference between the young and older adult groups was significant (p < 0.01). The older adult and dysphagia groups had decreased cough sensitivity compared to the younger group. Cough sensitivity was affected by risk factors for silent cerebral infarct and age. Our findings show that cough test results might be affected by risk factors for silent cerebral infarction in older adults with chronic diseases.

Quality Improvement Report Implementing a systematic care pathway for management of dysphagia after cardiothoracic surgery

OBJECTIVES

This longitudinal quality improvement study explored the impact of a new multidisciplinary dysphagia care pathway on swallow screening referrals, patient journeys and swallow outcomes in patients after cardiac surgery.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The new dysphagia care pathway consisted of i) nurse chart review triaging using established risk factors, ii) nurse swallow screening (including a cough reflex test and water swallow test) and iii) rapid referral routes to speech pathology. All patients referred for swallow screening in 2020 after the commencement of the new dysphagia care pathway were included (n = 114). Data was compared to two historical, published data sets at the research site (n-41 in 2012-2013 and n = 121 in 2013-2016).

SETTING

Cardiovascular intensive care unit.

RESULTS

52% failed chart review and 29% failed cough reflex test. All patients who passed chart review and cough reflex test returned to a normal diet without need for speech pathology referral. Silent aspiration rates were high in those who failed chart review and the cough reflex test (42%, 43% respectively). For those who received a swallow screen, enteral feeding rates were 70% on first assessment and 27% by discharge from the unit in historical data (2013-2016). In comparison, in 2020, enteral feeding rates were 44% and 8% respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Referrals for nurse swallow screening and speech pathology increased following the introduction of the care pathway. There has been a reduction in enteral feeding rates and length of enteral feeding at discharge. High rates of silent aspiration in those who fail screening suggests stepwise nurse dysphagia screening successfully picks up at-risk patients.

Are Oropharyngeal Dysphagia Screening Tests Effective in Preventing Pneumonia?

Oropharyngeal dysphagia, a clinical condition that indicates difficulty in moving food and liquid from the oral cavity to the esophagus, has a markedly high prevalence in the elderly. The number of elderly people with oropharyngeal dysphagia is expected to increase due to the aging of the world's population. Understanding the current situation of dysphagia screening is crucial when considering future countermeasures. We report findings from a literature review including citations on current objective dysphagia screening tests: the Water Swallowing Test, Mann Assessment of Swallowing Ability, and the Gugging Swallowing Screen. Pneumonia can be predicted using the results of the screening tests discussed in this review, and the response after the screening tests is important for prevention. In addition, although interdisciplinary team approaches prevent and reduce aspiration, optimal treatment is a challenging. Intervention studies with multiple factors focusing on the elderly are needed.

Effects of high flow nasal cannula on the coordination between swallowing and breathing in postextubation patients, a randomized crossover study

BACKGROUND

Timing of swallows in relation to respiratory phases is associated with aspiration events. Oxygen therapy possibly affects the timing of swallows, which may alter airway protective mechanisms.

OBJECTIVES

To compare the coordination between swallowing and respiration during water infusion in post-extubation patients using high flow nasal oxygen (HFNO) with the coordination in those using low flow nasal oxygen (LFNO).

METHODS

We conducted a randomized controlled crossover study in post-extubation patients. The patients extubated within 48 h were randomly assigned to two groups, namely, HFNO and LFNO. The eligible patients in each group received either HFNO with fraction of inspired oxygen (FiO₂) 0.35, flow 50 L per minute (LPM), and temperature 34 °C or LFNO 5 LPM for 5 min. The coordination between swallowing and respiration was observed during continuous infusion of 10-ml water one minute three times. Respiratory phases and swallowing were monitored using electrocardiogram (EKG)-derived respiratory signals and submental electromyography (EMG), respectively. The swallowing frequency and timing of swallows in relation to respiratory phases were recorded. The coordination between swallowing and respiration was classified into 4 patterns, namely I, E, I-E, and E-I swallows. (I; inspiration and E; expiration) Subsequently, after a 5-min washout period, the patients were switched to the other type of oxygen therapy using the same procedure. The Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test was used for statistical analysis.

RESULTS

A total of 22 patients with a mean age of 56 years were enrolled in the study. The major indication for invasive mechanical ventilation was pneumonia with a median duration of endotracheal intubation of 2.5 days. The median total swallowing numbers (three minutes) were 18.5 times in the HFNO period and 21 times in the LFNO period (p = NS). The most common swallowing pattern was E-swallow. The patients using HFNO had higher numbers of E-swallow pattern (74.3% in HFNO vs 67.6% in LFNO; p = 0.048) and lower numbers of I-swallow pattern (14.3% in HFNO vs 23.1% in LFNO; p = 0.044). The numbers of other swallowing patterns were not different between the 2 groups.

CONCLUSIONS

Compared with LFNO, HFNO significantly increased the E-swallow and decreased the I-swallow in post-extubation patients. The findings indicated that HFNO might reduce a risk of aspiration during the post-extubation period. Clinical trial No.: Thai clinical trial TCTR20200206004 Registered February 4, 2020. URL: http://www.clinicaltrials.in.th/index.php?tp=regtrials&menu=trialsearch&smenu=fulltext&task=search&task2=view1&id=5740 .

Discriminant Ability of the 3-Ounce Water Swallow Test to Detect Aspiration in Acute Postoperative Cardiac Surgical Patients

Dysphagia is a common complication of cardiac surgery (CS) contributing to morbidity and mortality. Although early dysphagia detection is important, no current screening guidelines or validated tools exist in the cardiac intensive care setting. We therefore aimed to examine the discriminant ability of the 3-ounce water swallow test (3 oz. WST) to detect aspiration in acute postoperative CS patients. 196 postoperative CS patients were enrolled in this prospective single-center study. Participants completed the 3 oz. WST and a standardized Flexible Endoscopic Evaluation of Swallowing. Independent duplicate ratings of the penetration aspiration scale (PAS) were performed in a blinded fashion (100% agreement criteria). Receiver operating characteristic curve and area under the curve (AUC) analyses were performed with sensitivity, specificity, positive, and negative predictive values (PPV, NPV) derived. Fifty-four CS patients (28%) were confirmed aspirators (PAS ≥ 6), of whom 48% (n = 26) were silent aspirators (PAS = 8). Both the sensitivity and specificity of the 3 oz. WST to identify instrumentally confirmed aspiration was 63% (AUC: 0.63, 95% CI: 0.54, 0.72), and PPV was 39% and NPV 82%. The 3 oz. WST demonstrated fair discriminant ability to detect aspiration in acute postoperative CS patients. The high rate of silent aspiration may explain, in part, these findings given that the screening fail criteria include an overt cough response. In isolation, the 3 oz. WST does not represent a sensitive screen of aspiration in postoperative CS patients with a need to identify alternative screening tools for this setting.

Conformable AlN Piezoelectric Sensors as a Non-invasive Approach for Swallowing Disorder Assessment

Deglutition disorders (dysphagia) are common symptoms of a large number of diseases and can lead to severe deterioration of the patient's quality of life. The clinical evaluation of this problem involves an invasive screening, whose results are subjective and do not provide a precise and quantitative assessment. To overcome these issues, alternative possibilities based on wearable technologies have been proposed. We explore the use of ultrathin, compliant, and flexible piezoelectric patches that are able to convert the laryngeal movement into a well-defined electrical signal, with extremely low anatomical obstruction and high strain resolution. The sensor is based on an aluminum nitride thin film, grown on a soft Kapton substrate, integrated with an electrical charge amplifier and low-power, wireless connection to a smartphone. An ad-hoc designed laryngeal motion simulator (LMS), which is able to mimic the motions of the laryngeal prominence, was used to evaluate its performances. The physiological deglutition waveforms were then extrapolated on a healthy volunteer and compared with the sEMG (surface electromyography) of the submental muscles. Finally, different tests were conducted to assess the ability of the sensor to provide clinically relevant information. The reliability of these features permits an unbiased evaluation of the swallowing ability, paving the way to the creation of a system that is able to provide a point-of-care automatic, unobtrusive, and real-time extrapolation of the patient's swallowing quality even during normal behavior.

Gold Standard? Method of Citric Acid Solution Swallowing Test as a Screening Test for Patients with Tracheostomy

This study aimed to apply various ranges of citric acid levels in the mouth and T-cannula to compare the validity with instrumental aspiration measures in patients with tracheostomy. Sixty-one patients underwent the citric acid cough reflex test (CRT) and videofluoroscopic swallowing study (VFSS). Citric acid was delivered via facemask and T-cannula at concentrations of 0.4 mol/L, 0.6 mol/L, and 0.8 mol/L. Further, we recorded the coughing count and presence of ≥ 2 (C2) and ≥ 5 (C5) coughs. CRT via facemask at 0.4 mol/L C2, 0.6 mol/L C5, and 0.8 mol/L C2 and C5 were significantly associated with the presence of tracheal aspiration during VFSS. The sensitivity and specificity were optimized at 0.8 mol/L C2 for mouth inhalation and at 0.8 mol/L C5 for T-cannula inhalation. There was a significant difference in the coughing count during CRT at 0.4 mol/L and 0.8 mol/L via mouth inhalation between patients with or without tracheal aspiration, but not via T-cannula. The AUC for 0.8 mol/L facemask inhalation was 0.701. The optimal cut-off value of coughing count was thrice with 84.62% sensitivity and 50.00% specificity on the ROC curve. Afferent sensory nerve desensitization around and below the tracheostomy site could affect coughing reflex initiation and decrease the sensitivity of detecting aspiration in tracheotomized patients. The citric acid CRT via facemask can reliably detect tracheal aspiration and presence of coughing reflex compared to that via T-cannula in patients with tracheostomy.

Dysphagia screening in residential care settings: A scoping review

BACKGROUND

Older adults with dysphagia are at a higher risk of experiencing serious complications where dysphagia is not identified and adequately managed. Nursing personnel are critical for timely identification and management of dysphagia and prevention of these subsequent serious complications in residential care settings.

OBJECTIVES

To identify dysphagia screening tools used in residential care and to establish whether validated and used as per guidelines, their diagnostic accuracy and reliability and to identify the prevalence rate of dysphagia in this setting.

DESIGN

A scoping review based on Arksey & O'Malley (2005) methodological framework.

DATA SOURCES

An electronic search of databases CINAHL, Pubmed and Scopus was conducted. Reference lists were checked in all identified articles for additional studies. Peer-reviewed publications describing the process of identifying dysphagia and using a screening protocol in residential care settings were considered for inclusion.

REVIEW METHODS

All identified studies were screened by reading of titles, keywords and abstracts. Those articles that were deemed eligible for inclusion were read in full.

RESULTS

Nineteen quantitative studies and one mixed-methods study out of 1,674 articles were included in the review. Thirteen different instruments for dysphagia screening were identified, with the Modified Water Swallow Test being the most commonly used. Other diagnostic procedures, such as fiberoptic endoscopic evaluation of swallowing, pulse oximetry or cervical auscultation, were implemented along with the administration of a dysphagia screening tool in six studies. The 3-Ounce Water Swallow Test, the Yale Swallow Protocol and the Gugging Swallowing Screen were identified as the instruments with the best clinical accuracy values. The reported prevalence of dysphagia in this setting ranged from 15% to 70%.

CONCLUSIONS

Formal dysphagia screening in residential care settings is not common practice. The dysphagia screening tools identified in this review are not validated for use in this setting. The implementation of dysphagia screening protocols specific to this population may facilitate identification of dysphagia and avoid complications.

Impact of Oral and Swallowing Function on the Feeding Status of Older Adults in Nursing Homes

BACKGROUND

To date, there have been few guidelines proposed for adjustment of the food consistency, particularly to match the oral function of older adults, which will guide clinicians and caregivers in appropriately modifying food.

OBJECTIVE

We investigated how oral, swallowing, and cognitive conditions of older adults who required daily nursing care in a nursing home were associated with different dietary food consistencies.

METHODS

Clinical examinations to record dentition status, swallowing, and cognitive functions were performed, and the feeding status, including the food consistencies and need for assistance at lunchtime, was evaluated in 37 older residents in nursing homes. The swallowing function was assessed by performing a modified water-swallowing test, and food swallowing was tested using pudding and rice crackers. The χ2 test was used to determine the relationships among the parameters.

RESULTS

No participants were able to take cooked rice, nor regular and soft side dishes. There was no significant relationship between dentition status and feeding status. Of the participants, 95% ate pudding without any problems and 49% ate rice crackers without any signs of swallowing difficulty such as coughing or stopping chewing. There was a significant relationship between the food test score using a rice cracker and the level of food consistencies, and between the same test score and the level of mealtime assistance, whereby the better the score of the food test using a rice cracker, the better was the level of food consistencies including use of a thickening agent and the better was the level of mealtime assistance.

CONCLUSION

The results strongly suggest that the food test using a rice cracker was associated with the level of food consistency and mealtime assistance for older adults in nursing homes.

Comparison of physical properties of voluntary coughing, huffing and swallowing in healthy subjects

Coughing, huffing and swallowing protect the airway from aspiration. This study was conducted to compare the physical properties of voluntary coughing, huffing and swallowing in healthy subjects. Ten healthy men were asked to huff, cough and swallow repeatedly. Electromyograms (EMGs) were recorded from the left side of the external oblique (EO), sternocleidomastoid, suprahyoid (SH) and thyrohyoid muscles. Airflow was recorded using a face mask with two-way non-rebreathing valves. The expiratory velocity of huffing and coughing and the SH EMG of all actions presented high intraclass correlation coefficients (> 0.8). The inspiratory and expiratory velocities did not differ significantly between coughing and huffing. The expiratory acceleration of coughing was significantly higher than that of huffing, whereas the expiratory volume of coughing was significantly smaller than that of huffing. The EO EMG of coughing and huffing were significantly larger than that of swallowing. The EO EMG activity during the expiratory phase was significantly higher than that of the other phases of both coughing and huffing. The SH EMG of coughing and huffing were significantly smaller than that of swallowing. Correlation analysis revealed that the expiratory velocity of coughing was strongly positively correlated with that of huffing. The expiratory volume of huffing was significantly positively correlated with hand grip strength. These results suggest that EO and SH muscle activities during huffing or coughing differ those during swallowing, and huffing and coughing may work similarly in expiratory function.

Simplified cough test can predict the risk for pneumonia in patients with acute stroke

We investigated the association between the results of a simplified cough test and pneumonia onset in 226 patients with acute stroke admitted to Suiseikai Kajikawa Hospital from April to December, 2018. For the simplified cough test, performed on admission, patients orally inhaled a mist of 1% citric acid–physiological saline using a portable mesh nebulizer. When the first cough was evoked or if it remained absent for 30 seconds (indicating an abnormal result), the test was ended. Patients also completed the repetitive saliva swallowing test (RSST) and modified water swallowing test. We monitored patients for pneumonia signs for 30 days post-admission. Eighteen patients exhibited an abnormal simplified cough test result. On multivariate analysis, an abnormal RSST result was independently associated with an abnormal simplified cough test result. Seventeen patients developed pneumonia. The adjusted Cox proportional hazard model for pneumonia onset revealed that the simplified cough test had predictive power for pneumonia onset (hazard ratio, 10.52; 95% confidence interval, 3.72–29.72). The simplified cough test is a strong indicator for predicting the pneumonia development in patients with acute stroke; it should be added to existing bedside screening tests for predicting pneumonia risk, allowing appropriate and timely intervention.

The associations of the number of medications and the use of anticholinergics with recovery from tubal feeding: a longitudinal hospital-based study

Background

Several medications, such as anticholinergics, are considered to affect the swallowing function adversely; however, whether or not anticholinergics or polypharmacy should be avoided to prevent eating dysfunction in elderly populations remains unclear. We therefore examined whether or not the number of medications or the use of anticholinergics was associated with recovery from tubal feeding in elderly inpatients.

Methods

We conducted a retrospective 1-year observation study in 95 Japanese hospitalized patients (83.3 ± 9.7 years old) receiving nutrition through a feeding tube. The anticholinergic cognitive burden scale (ACBs) was used as an index for quantifying the anticholinergic action.

Results

Thirty-six (37.9%) subjects recovered from tubal to oral feeding during the observation period. The logistic regression models showed that an increased number of prescribed medications and an increase in ACBs decreased the incidence of recovery from tubal feeding (odds ratio [95% confidence interval]: 0.66 [0.50–0.87], P = 0.003 and 0.52 [0.29–0.92], P = 0.024, respectively). Furthermore, the cumulative incidence of recovery from tubal feeding was significantly lower in the subjects who were given an additional ≥3 medications during the observation period than in those who were not (hazard ratio [95% confidence interval]: 0.08 [0.01–0.59], P = 0.014).

Conclusions

The findings of this study suggest that an increased exposure to medications, especially anticholinergics, may be an important factor interfering with recovery from tubal feeding in hospitalized elderly patients.

A Sensory Stimulation Protocol to Modulate Cough Sensitivity: A Randomized Controlled Trial Safety Study

Purpose This study evaluated the safety and efficacy of a sensory stimulation protocol that was designed to modulate citric acid cough thresholds as a potential treatment for silent aspiration. Method Healthy adults (n = 24) were randomly assigned to one of three sensory stimulation groups: (a) high-intensity ultrasonically nebulized distilled water (UNDW) inhalations (1.6 ml/min); (b) low-intensity UNDW inhalations (0.5 ml/min); and (3) control, 0.9% saline inhalations (1.6 ml/min). Sensory stimulation was delivered once a day, for 4 consecutive days. Citric acid cough thresholds were determined at baseline, Day 3, and Day 5 to evaluate changes in cough sensitivity. Spirometry was undertaken before, during, and after each sensory stimulation session to monitor for bronchoconstriction. Results No participant showed evidence of bronchoconstriction during the sensory stimulation protocol. There was an interaction effect between day and group on suppressed cough thresholds, χ²(4) = 11.32, p = .02. When compared to the control group, there was a decrease in citric acid cough thresholds across Days 1-5 in the high-intensity (-1.8 doubling concentrations, 95% confidence interval [-2.88, -0.72], p = .01) and low-intensity (-1.3 doubling concentrations, 95% confidence interval [-2.4, -0.2], p = .03) UNDW inhalation groups, representing a sensitization effect of UNDW inhalations on cough sensitivity. Conclusions The UNDW sensory stimulation protocol was safe in healthy adults. The findings provide preliminary evidence that UNDW inhalations sensitize laryngeal afferents related to citric acid-induced cough induction. The therapeutic potential of the UNDW sensory stimulation protocol will be explored in patients with reduced cough sensitivity who are at risk of silent aspiration and aspiration pneumonia. Plain Language Summary This study explored the safety and efficacy of a sensory stimulation protocol that was designed to modulate cough sensitivity as a potential treatment for silent aspiration. The study revealed that inhalations of nebulized distilled water were safe and increased cough sensitivity, when compared to control saline inhalations.

Validity of a dysphagia screening test following resection for head and neck cancer

BACKGROUND

The aim of this study was to evaluate the validity of a dysphagia screening test (DST) in patients who have undergone resection for head and neck cancer (HNC). In addition, we examined whether or not combined effects of DSTs improve the detection accuracy of penetration/aspiration.

METHODS

Thirty-six HNC patients were participated. The DST consisted of the repetitive saliva swallowing test (RSST), the water swallowing test (WST), the modified water swallowing test (MWST), the food test (FT), and tongue pressure. A videofluoroscopic swallowing study was conducted, and the penetration-aspiration scale was used for scoring. For statistical analyses, we used the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis. Furthermore, the accuracy of the determination of penetration/aspiration was evaluated by combining two or three DSTs.

RESULTS

The penetration/aspiration could be predicted with moderate accuracy based on MWST and FT. The area under the ROC curve (AUC) values of the MWST and FT were 0.76 (p = 0.03) and 0.80 (p = 0.050), and the sensitivity/specificity was 0.9/0.61 (MWST) and 0.8/0.8 (FT), respectively. As a result of combining 2 or 3 DSTs, the combination of "MWST and FT" was the most accurate, with an AUC of 0.87 (p = 0.02). The combination of three tests had lower accuracy than the combination of two tests.

CONCLUSION

Based on our results, it is recommended that MWST or FT be used when only one type of DST is performed. In addition, the combination of two DSTs may detect aspiration patients more accurately than one alone.

Post-stroke dysphagia: An exploration of initial identification and management performed by nurses and doctors

BACKGROUND

South African speech-language therapists are the only health professionals charged with dysphagia rehabilitation. However, registered nurses and doctors are often initial healthcare contact points for post-stroke dysphagia. Notwithstanding service concerns, they do indeed identify and manage post-stroke dysphagia. However, little is known about specifically what they do during these initial clinical encounters.

OBJECTIVE

To explore how doctors and registered nurses, on initial clinical contact, identify and manage post-stroke dysphagia.

METHOD

A quantitative descriptive survey design, with non-probability, purposive sampling, was used. Twenty-one registered nurses and four doctors at a private South African hospital self-administered a questionnaire. Univariate analyses were completed by calculating frequency distributions of nurses' and doctors' identification and management practices.

RESULTS

Most (86%) did not use a formal screening tool. Indicators screened informally included: presence of drooling (84%) or gag reflex (76%), level of alertness (80%) and spontaneous saliva swallow (80%). Participants neglected important indicators like voluntary cough and vocal quality. Management provided included head of bed elevation (96%), speech-language therapist referrals (92%), nasogastric tube insertions (88%), intravenous fluids (84%) and positional adjustments (76%). Alternative management included total parenteral nutrition (52%), syringe feeding (48%), swallow muscle strengthening exercises (56%) and swallow manoeuvres (52%).

CONCLUSION

Results indicated that doctors and registered nurses under-utilised important dysphagia indicators and used potentially harmful management practices like syringe feeding. Management practices further included out-of-scope methods like dysphagia rehabilitation exercises or manoeuvres. Recommendations include peer dysphagia screening training using formal tools and basic dysphagia management methods to better equip doctors and registered nurses when they clinically engage post-stroke patients.

The assessment of the peak of reflex cough in subjects with acquired brain injury and tracheostomy and healthy controls

INTRODUCTION

There is no standard procedure to evaluated the peak of reflex cough flow (PCF-reflex) in the literature, which is important assessment in subjects with acquired brain injury and tracheostomy cannula. The present study aims to investigate the PCF of the reflex cough in a broad sample of healthy controls and, furthermore, the presence and the strength of voluntary and reflex cough in subjects with ABI with tracheostomy cannula.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We recruited 147 participants including the healthy subjects (n = 105) and acquired brain injury subjects (n = 43), who underwent respiratory assessment: the Tidal Volume, Forced Vital Capacity, PCF of voluntary cough (PCF-voluntary) and PCF-reflex (using a spirometer connected with a nebulizer by a bidirectional).

RESULTS

The PCF-reflex of controls and subjects was significant lower than the PCF-voluntary (P < 0.01). The PCF-voluntary was not assessed in 26 (60.5 %) subjects due to severe cognitive deficit. In subjects without cognitive deficits (n = 17; 39.5 %), it was significantly lower than in healthy controls (p < 0.01). In contrast, the PCF-reflex was completed in all subjects and it was not significantly different from healthy controls. Furthermore, the strength of the PCF-reflex decreased with increasing inhalation numbers of nebulised air.

CONCLUSION

Reflex cough behaviour differs largely from voluntary cough and the PCF results reflect this great discrepancy. PCF-reflex could be useful parameter for assessing the airway protection whereas PCF-voluntary for measuring airway clearance.

A systematic review of methods of citric acid cough reflex testing

INTRODUCTION

This systematic review summarises and appraises methods of citric acid cough reflex testing (CRT) documented in published literature.

METHODS

Electronic databases, MEDLINE, EMBASE, CINAHL, PsychINFO, Scopus were searched up to and including 11th February 2018. Studies reporting a method of citric acid CRT, published in peer-reviewed journals in English or Spanish, were assessed for the inclusion criteria. Of the selected studies, information on the instrumentation and CRT protocol was extracted.

RESULTS

A total of 129 studies were included. Instrumentation and protocols differed widely across studies. Reporting of methods of citric acid CRT was sub-standard, with many crucial methodological components omitted from published manuscripts, preventing their full replication.

CONCLUSIONS

Considerable methodological variability exists for citric acid CRT in published literature. The findings suggest that caution is warranted in comparing citric acid cough thresholds across studies. Full replication of previously published methods of citric acid CRT is limited due to crucial elements of the citric acid CRT protocol being omitted from published manuscripts. These findings have implications on the use of citric acid CRT in clinical and pharmaceutical studies to evaluate the effects of antitussive medications and cough therapies.

Reconsideration of three screening tests for dysphagia in patients with cerebrovascular disease performed by non-expert examiners

Dysphagia prevalence has increased with increasing elderly population worldwide. Therefore, early detection of dysphagia has become increasingly important. Repetitive saliva swallowing test (RSST), modified water swallowing test (MWST), and cervical auscultation, which are convenient for non-experts to assess eating and swallowing and have been frequently used in Japan since 20 years. Using aspiration and pharyngeal residues, the objective of this study was to elucidate the efficacy of the three screening tests performed by non-experts in patients who had swallowing disorders. In total, 102 patients with cerebrovascular diseases who were suspected of having dysphagia were assessed. A swallowing team assessed their swallowing capabilities; videofluoroscopy and screening tests were performed. RSST, MWST, and cervical auscultation were performed by junior dentists who were non-experts in dysphagia. Sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value, negative predictive value, positive likelihood ratio, and negative likelihood ratio in each examination were evaluated using results of aspiration in videofluoroscopy and pharyngeal residues. For aspiration, the highest sensitivity with cervical auscultation (VES) was 93.7%. For pharyngeal residue, the highest sensitivity with cervical auscultation (VES) was 84.3%. For piriform sinus residue, the highest sensitivity with cervical auscultation (VES) was 86.4%. Despite being evaluated by a non-expert, the sensitivity of cervical auscultation (VES) and MWST was ≥ 80%, suggesting their effectiveness as prescreening tests, although the range of specificity was 25.5-68.4% in all examinations. These tests are easy to perform and useful to screen for aspiration or pharyngeal residues before precision tests.

The Swallowing Clinical Assessment Score in Parkinson's Disease (SCAS-PD) Is a Valid and Low-Cost Tool for Evaluation of Dysphagia: A Gold-Standard Comparison Study

BACKGROUND

Dysphagia is a predictor of mortality in Parkinson's disease (PD). Developing alternative methods to videofluoroscopy swallowing study (VFSS) for the evaluation of dysphagia is a public health necessity. The Swallowing Clinical Assessment Score in Parkinson's Disease (SCAS-PD) is an alternative and low-cost tool for diagnosis of dysphagia, but had not been properly validated in comparison to the gold-standard method. The objective of this study was to assess the validity and reliability of the SCAS-PD.

METHODS

SCAS-PD was applied to 31 patients with PD, and VFSS was conducted concurrently. This clinical assessment uses different volumes and viscosities to identify signs of swallowing impairments. For validation purposes, the interclass correlation coefficient and the weighted kappa were calculated. The AUC of the ROC curve, sensitivity, and specificity values for detection of penetration/aspiration (PA) were assessed. Internal consistency was calculated by Cronbach's alpha.

RESULTS

Fifty-one percent of patients were classified with dysphagia. SCAS-PD was differentiated between normal/functional deglutition and dysphagia with AUC 0.97, 95% CI 0.92-1.00, and an optimal cutoff at 19 (sensitivity 100% and specificity 87.5%). The internal consistency was α = 0.91 for the total score. The internal consistency of the SCAS-PD domains was oral phase (α = 0.73), pharyngeal phase (α = 0.86), and signs of PA (α = 0.95). The weighted kappa analysis demonstrated a high rate of concordance at 0.71 (p < 0.001) between SCAS-PD and VFSS.

CONCLUSIONS

SCAS-PD has been shown to have a good concordance with the VFSS. Considering this, SCAS-PD is highly applicable in clinical settings, since it is a simple and low-cost diagnostic tool for detecting dysphagia in PD patients.

The Easy Dysphagia Symptom Questionnaire (EDSQ): a new dysphagia screening questionnaire for the older adults

PURPOSE

The early detection of dysphagia, a common clinical issue among older adults, is important. However, healthcare professionals sometimes experience difficulties in applying the current screening tools to older adults. Therefore, we developed the Easy Dysphagia Symptom Questionnaire (EDSQ), a simplified tool for the older adults, and investigated its reliability and validity.

METHODS

The 12-item "yes/no" EDSQ assesses dysphagia symptoms, with a total score being the sum of all "yes" responses. Each item was determined by consensus of three physiatrists after reviewing the previous dysphagia questionnaires. Participants were aged 65 years or older who either complained of or were suspected by a physician of facing swallowing disturbance. They completed the EDSQ, modified water swallow test (MWST), and videofluoroscopic swallowing study. The EDSQ's internal consistency was assessed. Correlations between the EDSQ total score and the MWST, American Speech-Language-Hearing Association's National Outcome Measurement System (ASHA NOMS) swallowing scale, and videofluoroscopic dysphagia scale (VDS) were analyzed.

RESULTS

The sample comprised 51 participants (29 male, 56.9%; mean age 76.7 ± 6.6 years). Mean EDSQ total score was 4.33 ± 3.03 (range 0-12). Regarding the EDSQ's reliability, the Cronbach's α coefficient was 0.785. The EDSQ total score correlated with the MWST (r = - 0.468, p = 0.001), ASHA NOMS swallowing scale (r = - 0.635, p < 0.001), and VDS (r = 0.449, p = 0.001). The receiver-operating characteristic analysis revealed an optimal cut-off score of ≥ 5, with a sensitivity of 90.9% and a specificity of 67.5%.

CONCLUSIONS

The EDSQ showed acceptable reliability and validity, indicating its applicability to older adults as a simple screening tool for safe swallowing.

Trends in domiciliary dental care including the need for oral appliances and dental technicians in Japan

The need for domiciliary dental care (DDC) for people requiring long-term nursing care is increasing as the super-aged society of Japan grows still older. Dysphagia diagnosis and rehabilitation are becoming more important in DDC; thus, the need for prostheses used for dysphasia rehabilitation is presumed to be increasing. To identify DDC trends in Japan, as well as the need for prostheses and dental technicians for DDC, we sent a self-administered questionnaire to dentists providing DDC and analyzed responses from 138 dentists (valid response rate, 39.8%). The results showed that 37.7% of respondents reported treating ≥50 patients per month. The most frequently performed procedures were removable prosthetic treatment and oral care, followed by dysphagia rehabilitation. Use of palatal augmentation prostheses was experienced by 54.3% of respondents, and most indicated that the prostheses were effective for improvement of oropharyngeal function. The rates of cooperation with primary care doctors and nursing care professionals were 76.8% and 85.5%, respectively. Only 6.5% of respondents reported accompanying dental technicians to DDC. The present analysis of trends in DDC indicates that oral care and dysphagia rehabilitation have become more frequent and that cooperation with healthcare professionals other than dental technicians has increased in recent DDC.

Treatment and evaluation of dysphagia rehabilitation especially on suprahyoid muscles as jaw-opening muscles

In our aging society, the number of patients with dysphagia, which is associated with disease and aging, is rapidly increasing. The swallowing reflex is a complex process that involves coordinated contractions of swallowing muscles. Many researchers have reported that age-related changes, such as frailty and sarcopenia, affect swallowing muscles and contribute to the decline in the swallowing function. Thus, simple, non-invasive evaluation methods and exercises for swallowing muscles in elderly patients with dysphagia are important.

Anterior–superior hyolaryngeal elevation during swallowing results from contractions of the suprahyoid muscle, which plays a primary role in opening the upper esophageal sphincter, along with relaxation of the cricopharyngeal muscle and laryngeal closure. Thus, many researchers have studied methods for evaluating and augmenting suprahyoid muscles. On the other hand, some researchers have reported on dysphagia rehabilitation focused on jaw-opening actions, because hyolaryngeal elevation muscles correspond with jaw-opening muscles. In this study, we describe a new dysphagia evaluation method and an exercise that focuses on suprahyoid muscles with application of jaw-opening actions.

Repetitive Saliva Swallowing Test: Norms, Clinical Relevance and the Impact of Saliva Secretion

Screening tests can be performed to identify stroke patients who require further assessment of swallowing function. The Repetitive Saliva Swallowing Test (RSST) is a screening test during which the patient is asked to swallow saliva as many times as possible for 30 s, while deglutition is counted through palpation of the larynx. This study aimed to establish normative values for three age groups of non-patients (total N = 120) on RSST. One patient group (N = 40) was also recruited from a geriatric stroke unit to assess whether RSST scores predicted outcomes on the Standardised Swallowing Assessment—Svenska (SSA-S), a clinical screening tool here used as a reference test. Since the RSST involves the swallowing of saliva, this study also measured the participants’ saliva secretion in order to examine its effect on RSST performance. This study showed that RSST results vary with age (lower among older) and gender (higher for men than women), while the number of doctor-prescribed medications, objective saliva secretion and self-assessed dryness of mouth did not affect the performance significantly. In comparison to a more extensive clinical screening procedure (SSA-S), the RSST correctly predicted 93% of negative cases and 69% of positive cases. This suggests that patients who show signs of aspiration according to SSA-S have a lower probability of detection with RSST.

Implementing Cough Reflex Testing in a Clinical Pathway for Acute Stroke: A Pragmatic Randomised Controlled Trial

Silent aspiration is common after stroke and can lead to subsequent pneumonia. While standard bedside dysphagia assessments are ineffective at predicting silent aspiration, cough reflex testing (CRT) has shown promise for identifying patients at risk of silent aspiration. We investigated the impact of CRT on patient and service outcomes when embedded into a clinical pathway. 488 acute stoke patients were randomly allocated to receive either CRT or standard care (i.e. bedside assessment). Primary outcomes included confirmed pneumonia within 3 months post stroke and length of acute inpatient stay. Secondary outcomes related to the feasibility of implementing a CRT pathway and clinician and patient satisfaction. There was a non-significant reduction in pneumonia rates by 2.2% points in the CRT group (OR 0.32, 95% CI 0.06-1.62). There was a non-significant difference of 0.7 days (95% CI - 0.29 to 1.71 days) in length of stay between the standard care group and the CRT group. The CRT took on average 3 min longer to complete (p < 0.01) and resulted in a significant 6.7% increase in videofluoroscopic referrals (p = 0.02); however, these results are clinically insignificant. High patient and clinician satisfaction with CRT was found, with clinicians reporting additional knowledge and confidence in decision making for dysphagia management. Post hoc subgroup analyses according to stroke types were conducted and revealed no significant differences in pneumonia rates after adjustment for multiple comparisons. In conclusion, it was possible to implement a CRT pathway with minimal increases in clinician resources. While clinicians perceived CRT as beneficial in clinical decision making, the efficacy of CRT for reducing pneumonia rates in acute stroke remains to be established.Clinical Trial Registration-URL: http://www.anzctr.org.au . Unique identifier: ACTRN12616000724471.

Crohn's disease-associated silent aspiration in the outpatient setting: Anesthesiologists beware

Every anesthesia provider fears aspiration of gastric contents during an anesthetic, and it may occur even in the absence of overt signs such as coughing or choking. Whether the aspiration is frank or silent, catastrophic and deleterious consequences may ensue. Therefore, familiarity with risk factors for silent aspiration is essential. Crohn's disease reportedly delays gastric emptying making these patients more susceptible to silent aspiration during surgery. Anesthesia providers must be cognizant of this risk and vigilant in the recognition to formulate a specific treatment plan preoperatively. We present a case of an ambulatory surgical patient with suspected silent aspiration undiagnosed by the anesthesia care team before induction of anesthesia.

Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Assessment of Uninvestigated Esophageal Dysphagia

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Our aim is to review the literature and provide guidelines for the assessment of uninvestigated dysphagia.

METHODS

A systematic literature search identified studies on dysphagia. The quality of evidence and strength of recommendations were rated according to the Grading of Recommendation Assessment, Development, and Evaluation (GRADE) approach. Statements were discussed and revised via small group meetings, teleconferences, and a web-based platform until consensus was reached by the full group.

RESULTS

The consensus includes 13 statements focused on the role of strategies for the assessment of esophageal dysphagia. In patients presenting with dysphagia, oropharyngeal dysphagia should be identified promptly because of the risk of aspiration. For patients with esophageal dysphagia, history can be used to help differentiate structural from motility disorders and to elicit alarm features. An empiric trial of proton pump inhibitor therapy should be limited to four weeks in patients with esophageal dysphagia who have reflux symptoms and no additional alarm features. For patients with persistent dysphagia, endoscopy, including esophageal biopsy, was recommended over barium esophagram for the assessment of structural and mucosal esophageal disease. Barium esophagram may be useful when the availability of endoscopy is limited. Esophageal manometry was recommended for diagnosis of esophageal motility disorders, and high-resolution was recommended over conventional manometry.

CONCLUSIONS

Once oropharyngeal dysphagia is ruled out, patients with symptoms of esophageal dysphagia should be assessed by history and physical examination, followed by endoscopy to identify structural and inflammatory lesions. If these are ruled out, then manometry is recommended for the diagnosis of esophageal dysmotility.

A service evaluation of cough reflex testing to guide dysphagia management in the postsurgical adult head and neck patient population

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The article reviews recent literature supporting the use of cough reflex testing (CRT), and outlines a service evaluation of CRT conducted with postsurgical head and neck cancer patients. There is a growing evidence base to support the use of CRT in dysphagia management to establish laryngeal sensation and screen for silent aspiration; however, there is a lack of evidence relating to using CRT within the head and neck population.

RECENT FINDINGS

Over a 3-month period, inpatients on an ear, nose and throat/maxillofacial ward underwent CRT as part of their clinical swallow evaluation. Data from these patients were collected, including their diagnoses, CRT findings, and subsequent management. The evaluation was limited by difficulties in maintaining a supply of citric acid, accessing medics to prescribe the citric acid, and staffing levels, as administration of the CRT initially required two members of staff to be present.

SUMMARY

The service evaluation findings, alongside current evidence examining noncancer mortality rates, suggests identification of silent aspiration is important in this population. CRT was useful to rationalize instrumental assessments and was easily incorporated into the swallowing evaluation. More evidence is needed to support the use of CRT within the head and neck population.

Oral care and prevention of pneumonia after withdrawal of nasogastric tube feeding in three elderly patients with psychiatric disorders

We investigated the effect of oral care on the prevention of pneumonia using a clinical scoring scale in elderly patients with psychiatric disorders after the withdrawal of nasogastric feeding tubes. Notably, oral care was effective in preventing pneumonia relapse in these patients.

New ultrasonographic screening method for oropharyngeal dysphagia: tissue Doppler imaging

Ultrasound tissue Doppler imaging (US-TDI) has been used to diagnose regional wall motion (WM) abnormalities in coronary artery disease but has not been applied to oropharyngeal diseases. This study aimed first to validate an US-TDI method to assess cervical esophageal (CE) WM and secondly to use the method to evaluate CE WM in patients with oropharyngeal dysphagia (OD). First, we enrolled 22 healthy men (mean age: 59.7 yr) who all underwent both US-TDI and videofluoroscopy (VF) and then esophageal high-resolution manometry (HRM) in the same week. We evaluated the reproducibility of the US-TDI and the relationship between US-TDI and other modalities (VF and HRM). Second, we enrolled 56 mild OD patients (mean age: 58.0 yr) and age- and sex-matched healthy controls. Difference in CE WM between these groups was evaluated by US-TDI. All healthy subjects underwent US-TDI, VF, and HRM successfully, with a sufficiently high reproducibility coefficient for this method, and significant correlation between US-TDI and VF/HRM parameters. US-TDI showed mean time to open CE wall and mean velocity of CE wall opening significantly differed between patients and healthy controls ( P < 0.01). In conclusion, we have developed a US-TDI method for easily assessing CE WM in daily practice and also found significant differences in CE WM between mild OD patients and healthy controls. NEW & NOTEWORTHY A new ultrasonographic screening method using tissue Doppler imaging for oropharyngeal dysphagia was found to be a reliable, reproducible, and well-tolerated method. There is a significant correlation between this new method and conventional methods. This method revealed that patients having mild symptoms of oropharyngeal dysphagia had already significantly delayed cervical esophageal wall opening.

Interferential current sensory stimulation, through the neck skin, improves airway defense and oral nutrition intake in patients with dysphagia: a double-blind randomized controlled trial

Background

Neuromuscular electrical stimulation with muscle contraction, administered through the skin of the neck, improves a patient’s swallowing ability. However, the beneficial effects of transcutaneous electrical sensory stimulation (TESS), without muscle contraction, are controversial. We investigated the effect of TESS, using interferential current, in patients undergoing dysphagia rehabilitation.

Methods

This double-blind, randomized controlled trial involved 43 patients who were prescribed in-hospital dysphagia rehabilitation for ≥3 weeks. Patients were randomly assigned to the sensory stimulation (SS) or sham groups; all received usual rehabilitative care plus 2 weeks of SS or sham intervention. Outcome measures included cough latency times against a 1% citric acid mist, functional oral intake scale (FOIS) scores, and oral nutritional intake – each determined after the second and third week following treatment initiation.

Results

Mean patient age was 84.3±7.5 years; 58% were women. The SS and sham groups had similar baseline characteristics. Changes in cough latency time at 2 weeks (−14.1±14.0 vs −5.2±14.2 s, p=0.047) and oral nutrition intake at 3 weeks (437±575 vs 138±315 kcal/day, p=0.042) improved more in the SS group than in the sham group. Changes in cough frequency and FOIS scores indicated better outcomes in the SS group, based on substantial effect sizes.

Conclusion

TESS, using interferential current through the neck, improved airway defense and nutrition in patients suffering from dysphagia. Further large-scale studies are needed to confirm the technique’s effect on swallowing ability.

A new evaluation of masticatory ability in patients with dysphagia: The Saku-Saku Test

OBJECTIVE

In the elderly and patients with dysphagia, masticatory problems often cause aspiration or choking. Although simple methods to predict aspiration and silent aspiration exist, methods for evaluating the masticatory function of patients with dysphagia are lacking. Accordingly, we developed a simple test to assess the chewing and swallowing ability of patients with dysphagia.

METHODS

One hundred and five patients with dysphagia were included. We used the Saku-Saku Test (SST), in which patients were asked to eat a rice cracker, and evaluated the quality of mandibular rotation during mastication. We studied the participants' ability to grind, aggregate, and swallow using videoendoscopic evaluation (VE) and investigated its association with mandibular rotation.

RESULTS

The SST showed good reliability between two examiners, with a kappa coefficient of 0.80. 92.4% of the patients ate the rice cracker without aspiration. The SST showed a high sensitivity of 73.3% and specificity of 93.3% for the degree of grinding. The degree of food bolus aggregation had a sensitivity of 45.0% and specificity of 90.6%, and aspiration had a sensitivity of 25.0% and specificity of 84.5%, both of which showed high specificity.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of this study suggested that the SST might be simple and useful for identifying patients with dysphagia who are able to masticate, even if they do not eat foods that need chewing and could be used before starting these patients on foods that need chewing.