The laparoscopic approach with antireflux surgery is superior to the thoracoscopic approach for the treatment of esophageal achalasia. Experience of a single surgical unit

Long-term outcomes of laparoscopic Heller's myotomy with angle of His accentuation in patients of achalasia cardia

BACKGROUND

Laparoscopic Heller's myotomy (LHM) is an established treatment for achalasia cardia. Anti-reflux procedures (ARP) are recommended with LHM to reduce the post-operative reflux though the optimal anti-reflux procedure is still debatable. This study reports on the long-term outcomes of LHM with Angle-of-His accentuation (AOH) in patients of achalasia cardia.

METHODS

One hundred thirty-six patients of achalasia cardia undergoing LHM with AOH between January 2010 to October 2021 with a minimum follow-up of one year were evaluated for symptomatic outcomes using Eckardt score (ES), DeMeester heartburn (DMH) score and achalasia disease specific quality of life (A-DsQoL) questionnaire. Upper gastrointestinal endoscopy, high resolution manometry (HRM) and timed barium esophagogram (TBE) were performed when feasible and rates of esophagitis and improvement in HRM and TBE parameters evaluated. Time dependent rates of success were calculated with respect to improvement in ES and dysphagia-, regurgitation- and heartburn-free survival using Kaplan-Meier analysis.

RESULTS

At a median follow-up of 65.5 months, the overall success (ES ≤ 3) was 94.1%. There was statistically significant improvement in ES, heartburn score and A-DsQoL score (p < 0.00001, p = 0.002 and p < 0.00001). Significant heartburn (score ≥ 2) was seen in 12.5% subjects with 9.5% patients reporting frequent PPI use (> 3 days per week). LA-B and above esophagitis was seen in 12.7%. HRM and TBE parameters also showed a significant improvement as compared to pre-operative values (IRP: p < 0.0001, column height: p < 0.0001, column width: p = 0.0002). Kaplan-Meier analysis showed dysphagia, regurgitation, and heartburn free survival of 75%, 96.2% and 72.3% respectively at 10 years.

CONCLUSIONS

LHM with AOH gives a lasting relief of symptoms in patients of achalasia cardia with heartburn rates similar to that reported in studies using Dor's or Toupet's fundoplication with LHM. Hence, LHM with AOH may be a preferred choice in patients of achalasia cardia given the simplicity of the procedure.

An Update on Current Management Strategies for Achalasia and Future Perspectives

The last decade has seen growing insight into the pathophysiology of achalasia, and current treatments decreasing the resting pressure in the lower esophageal sphincter by endoscopic (botulinum toxin injection, pneumatic dilation, peroral endoscopic myotomy) or surgical means (Heller myotomy). Manometry is considered the gold standard to confirm the diagnosis of achalasia. Pneumatic dilation and laparoscopic Heller myotomy have similar effectiveness and are both more successful in patients with type II achalasia. Laparoscopic myotomy when combined with partial fundoplication is an effective surgical technique and has been considered the operative procedure of choice until recently. Peroral endoscopic myotomy is an emerging therapy with promising results since it offers a minimally invasive and efficacious option especially in type III achalasia. However, it remains to be determined if peroral endoscopic myotomy offers long-term efficacy.

Redo Laparoscopic Heller's Cardiomyotomy for Recurrent Achalasia: Is Laparoscopic Surgery Feasible?

BACKGROUND

Achalasia cardia is an esophageal motor disorder with raised lower esophageal sphincter (LES) pressure. Minimally invasive procedures have become the procedure of choice compared with conventional open surgery. After the primary surgery, recurrence or persistent symptoms have been noted in almost 10%-20% of cases.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In this case series, we share our experience with a series of 7 patients who presented to us from January 2010 to January 2017 for recurrent symptoms, following Heller's myotomy for achalasia cardia.

RESULTS

Commonest symptom of recurrence was dysphagia with mean duration of recurrence of 17.9 months between primary and redo surgery. Revisional Heller's myotomy with Dor's fundoplication was performed in all patients laparoscopically. Mean duration of surgery was 150 minutes. Incomplete gastric myotomy and fibrosis at previous myotomy scar were the main causes of recurrence. Mean duration of hospital stay was 3.5 days. Mean follow-up period was 23.5 months. All the patients were symptomatically better following the redo surgery. Subsequent manometry was performed at the end of 3 months with mean reduction in LES pressure of 7.5 + 1.2 mmHg.

CONCLUSION

Laparoscopic redo Heller's cardiomyotomy is a possibly reasonable option with good long-term results and minimal postoperative complications in expert hands.

Laparoscopic esophagomyotomy for achalasia in children: A review

Esophageal achalasia in children is rare but ultimately requires endoscopic or surgical treatment. Historically, Heller esophagomyotomy has been recommended as the treatment of choice. The refinement of minimally invasive techniques has shifted the trend of treatment toward laparoscopic Heller myotomy (LHM) in adults and children with achalasia. A review of the available literature on LHM performed in patients < 18 years of age was conducted. The pediatric LHM experience is limited to one multi-institutional and several single-institutional retrospective studies. Available data suggest that LHM is safe and effective. There is a paucity of evidence on the need for and superiority of concurrent antireflux procedures. In addition, a more complete portrayal of complications and long-term (> 5 years) outcomes is needed. Due to the infrequency of achalasia in children, these characteristics are unlikely to be defined without collaboration between multiple pediatric surgery centers. The introduction of peroral endoscopic myotomy and single-incision techniques, continue the trend of innovative approaches that may eventually become the standard of care.

Heller myotomy for achalasia. From the open to the laparoscopic approach

The last three decades have witnessed a progressive evolution in the surgical treatment of esophageal achalasia, with a shift from open to a minimally invasive Heller myotomy. The laparoscopic approach is currently the standard of care with better short-term outcomes and similar long-term functional results when compared to open surgery. More recently, the laparoscopic single-site approach and the use of the robot have been proposed to further improve the surgical outcome in achalasia patients.

Data analyses and perspectives on laparoscopic surgery for esophageal achalasia

In general, the treatment methods for esophageal achalasia are largely classified into four groups, including drug therapy using nitrite or a calcium channel blocker, botulinum toxin injection, endoscopic therapy such as endoscopic balloon dilation, and surgery. Various studies have suggested that the most effective treatment of esophageal achalasia is surgical therapy. The basic concept of this surgical therapy has not changed since Heller proposed esophageal myotomy for the purpose of resolution of lower esophageal obstruction for the first time in 1913, but the most common approach has changed from open-chest surgery to laparoscopic surgery. Currently, the laparoscopic surgery has been the procedure of choice for the treatment of esophageal achalasia. During the process of the transition from open-chest surgery to laparotomy, to thoracoscopic surgery, and to laparoscopic surgery, the necessity of combining antireflux surgery has been recognized. There is some debate as to which type of antireflux surgery should be selected. The Toupet fundoplication may be the most effective in prevention of postoperative antireflux, but many medical institutions have selected the Dor fundoplication which covers the mucosal surface exposed by myotomy. Recently, a new endoscopic approach, peroral endoscopic myotomy (POEM), has received attention. Future studies should examine the long-term outcomes and whether POEM becomes the gold standard for the treatment of esophageal achalasia.

Current status in the treatment options for esophageal achalasia

Recent advances in the treatment of achalasia include the use of high-resolution manometry to predict the outcome of patients and the introduction of peroral endoscopic myotomy (POEM). The first multicenter randomized, controlled, 2-year follow-up study conducted by the European Achalasia Trial group indicated that laparoscopic Heller myotomy (LHM) was not superior to pneumatic dilations (PD). Publications on the long-term success of laparoscopic surgery continue to emerge. In addition, laparoscopic single-site surgery is applicable to advanced laparoscopic operations such as LHM and anterior fundoplication. The optimal treatment option is an ongoing matter of debate. In this review, we provide an update of the current progress in the treatment of esophageal achalasia. Unless new conclusive data prove otherwise, LHM is considered the most durable treatment for achalasia at the expense of increased reflux-associated complications. However, PD is the first choice for non-surgical treatment and is more cost-effective. Repeated PD according to an “on-demand” strategy based on symptom recurrence can achieve long-term remission. Decision making should be based on clinical evidence that identifies a subcategory of patients who would benefit from specific treatment options. POEM has shown promise but its long-term efficacy and safety need to be assessed further.

Transesophageal endoscopic myotomy (TEEM) for the treatment of achalasia: the United States human experience

BACKGROUND

From our early experience with NOTES, our group has acquired familiarity with transesophageal submucosal dissection and myotomy in swine model, which allowed us to perfect a model to perform purely endoscopic transesophageal myotomy (TEEM) for the treatment of achalasia and apply it into clinical practice. This study was designed to assess the safety, feasibility, and efficacy of TEEM in a series of patients with achalasia.

METHODS

Under institutional review board approval, patients were enrolled on our study, where TEEM was offered as an alternative to laparoscopic or robotic Heller myotomy. The inclusion criteria were patients with achalasia confirmed by esophageal manometry, between age 18 and 50 years, and ASA class 2 or lower. The exclusion criteria were pregnancy, prior esophageal surgery, immunosuppression, coagulopathies, and severe medical comorbidities. The procedures were performed under general anesthesia, with the patient in supine position on positive pressure ventilation. With a GIF-180 (Olympus, Tokyo, Japan) positioned at 10 cm above the GEJ, a mucosotomy was performed at the 2 o'clock position, and a submucosal space was developed caudally creating a controlled submucosal tunnel extending 2 cm distal to the GEJ. Upon completion of this tunnel the gastroesophageal lumen was inspected for mucosal integrity. The scope was then reinserted into the submucosal tunnel and using a triangle-tip knife, myotomy was performed starting at 5 cm above the GEJ and ending at 2 cm below the GEJ. During this process the circular muscle layer of the esophagus was carefully divided with preservation of the longitudinal layer. At the end of the procedure, the mucosal incision was closed longitudinally with endoscopic clips and surgical glue.

RESULTS

Five patients underwent TEEM, with no perioperative complication. All patients reported significant improvement of their dysphagia immediately after the procedure. On the first postoperative day, all barium swallows showed disappearance of the classical bird beak taper, rapid emptying of contrast into the stomach, and absence of leaks. All patients were discharged on the second postoperative day on liquid diet. Two patients reported transient heartburn, which were well controlled with medications. The average preoperative GERD-HRQL was 20, which improved to 11.3 at 7 days postoperative and 2 at 30 days postoperative. To date, three patients have already returned for their 6-month follow-up, reporting adequate swallowing and low LES pressures on esophageal manometry (their mean preoperative LES resting pressure was 36.46 mmHg and residual pressure was 43.16 mmHg, whereas the 6-month follow-up mean LES resting pressure was 10.06 mmHg and residual pressure was 0.43 mmHg).

CONCLUSIONS

TEEM seems to be safe, feasible, and effective for the treatment of patients with achalasia. Long-term data are still necessary for wide-spread utilization of this novel technique.

Can thoracoscopic Heller's myotomy give equivalent results to the more usual laparoscopic Heller's myotomy in the treatment of achalasia?

A best evidence topic in thoracic surgery was written according to a structured protocol. The question addressed was 'Can thoracoscopic Heller's myotomy (THM) give equivalent results to the more usual laparoscopic Heller's myotomy (LHM) in the treatment of achalasia?' Altogether, more than 478 papers were found using the reported search, of which eight represented the best evidence to answer the clinical question. The authors, journal, date and country of publication, patient group studied, study type, relevant outcomes and results of these papers are tabulated. THM and LHM are two recognised approaches to the performance of a distal oesophageal myotomy in the treatment of achalasia. Of the two meta-analyses on this subject, Campos et al. [Campos GM, Vittinghoff E, Rabl C, Takata M, Gadenstätter M, Lin F, Ciovica R. Endoscopic and surgical treatments for achalasia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann Surg 2009;249:45-57] illustrated improved symptom control in LHM compared with THM. Wang et al. [Wang L, Li Y, Li L, Yu C. A systematic review and meta-analysis of the Chinese literature for the treatment of achalasia. World J Gastroenterol 2008;14:5900-5906], however, observed no difference in remission rates following either approach. Close scrutiny of comparison studies revealed superiority in long-term outcomes and symptoms following LHM in three studies. There were, however, studies that illustrated comparable outcome results for THM in both resolution of dysphagia and reflux. Morbidity rates following THM were noted to be similar to or slightly higher than those following LHM in five studies, but no statistically significant difference was illustrated in these studies. Operating time and length of stay were noted to be significantly shorter in LHM when compared with THM in three studies, although there were exceptions to this, with two studies illustrating shorter or equal operating times for THM. However, LHM operating times have been shown to improve with experience gained. We conclude that there is good evidence demonstrating the effectiveness and safety of LHM, and it has come to be regarded as the gold standard treatment of achalasia. When THM is compared with LHM, the long-term results approach parity on occasion but not consistently. The overall postoperative morbidity of THM is not significantly different from that of LHM. An advantage of LHM over THM that is demonstrated is that LHM offers a shorter hospital stay and reduced operative time.

Laparoscopic cardiomyotomy for achalasia: clinical outcomes beyond 5 years

BACKGROUND

Laparoscopic cardiomyotomy is the most common surgical procedure for the treatment of achalasia, although few reports describe long-term surgical outcomes.

METHODS

The outcomes for 155 patients who underwent a laparoscopic cardiomyotomy with anterior partial fundoplication more than 5 years ago (July 1992 to May 2004) were determined. Patients were followed prospectively at yearly time points using a structured questionnaire which evaluated symptoms of dysphagia, reflux, side-effects, and overall satisfaction with the clinical outcome.

RESULTS

Clinical data were available for 125 patients. Thirteen patients died within 5 years of surgery, four were unable to complete the questionnaire, and one developed esophageal squamous cell carcinoma. Nine patients were lost to follow-up, and three would not answer the questionnaire (92.2% late follow-up). Postoperative dysphagia, odynophagia, chest pain, and heartburn was significantly improved at 1 year, 5 years, and late (5+ years) follow-up, with outcomes stable beyond 12 months. Seventy-seven percent of patients reported a good or excellent result (minimal or no symptoms) at 5 years and 73% at late follow-up. At late follow-up, 90% considered they had made the correct decision to undergo surgery.

CONCLUSIONS

At minimum 5 years follow-up, laparoscopic cardiomyotomy for achalasia achieves effective and durable relief of symptoms, and most patients are satisfied with the outcome.

Defining a learning curve for laparoscopic cardiomyotomy

BACKGROUND

This study was designed to determine whether there is a learning curve for laparoscopic cardiomyotomy for the treatment of achalasia.

METHODS

All patients who underwent a primary laparoscopic cardiomyotomy for achalasia between 1992 and 2006 in our hospitals were identified from a prospective database. The institutional and the individual surgeon's learning experiences were assessed based on operative and clinical outcome parameters. The outcomes of cardiomyotomies performed by consultant surgeons versus supervised trainees also were compared.

RESULTS

A total of 186 patients met the inclusion criteria; 144 procedures were undertaken by consultant surgeons and 42 by a surgical trainee. The length of operation decreased after the first ten cases in both the institutional and each individual experience. The rate of conversion to open surgery also was significantly higher in the first 20 cases performed. Intraoperative complications, overall satisfaction with the outcome, reoperation rate, and postoperative dysphagia were not associated with the institutional or the surgeon's operative experience. Although the length of the operation was greater for surgical trainees (93 versus 79 minutes; p < 0.01), no differences in outcome between the operations performed by consultant surgeons and surgical trainees were detected.

CONCLUSION

An institutional (20 cases) and an individual (10 cases) learning curve for laparoscopic cardiomyotomy for achalasia can be defined. The clinical outcome for laparoscopic cardiomyotomy does not differ between supervised surgical trainees and consultant surgeons.

Endoscope-guided pneumatic dilatation of esophageal achalasia without fluoroscopy is another safe and effective treatment option: a report of Taiwan

This study reports the usefulness and safety of endoscope-guided pneumatic dilatation (PD) technique without using fluoroscopy. From January 1998 to June 2004, a total of 33 patients with achalasia, including 20 males and 13 females, received PD in our unit. The mean age was 48.5+/-17.5 years (range: [corrected] 18 to 93 y). All patients underwent endoscopic-guided PD by using a 3.0 cm [corrected] diameter "Regiflex" balloon dilator (Microvasive, Watertown, MA). The results of PD were recorded and evaluated by symptom scores based on the frequency of attack of 3 major symptoms: dysphagia, regurgitation, and chest pain, both before, and then 6 weeks, 6 months, 1 year after PD was performed. Thirty-three patients were treated, excellent results in 27, good results in 3, and failure in 3 (1 requiring surgical treatment later). Overall, we demonstrated that the technique is effective and safe option for achalasia treatment.

Systematic review of general thoracic surgery articles to identify predictors of operating room case durations

BACKGROUND

Previous studies of operating room (OR) information systems data over the past two decades have shown how to predict case durations using the combination of scheduled procedure(s), individual surgeon and assistant(s), and type of anesthetic(s). We hypothesized that the accuracy of case duration prediction could be improved by the use of other electronic medical record data (e.g., patient weight or surgeon notes using standardized vocabularies).

METHODS

General thoracic surgery was used as a model specialty because much of its workload is elective (scheduled) and many of its cases are long. PubMed was searched for thoracic surgery papers reporting operative time, surgical time, etc. The systematic literature review identified 48 papers reporting statistically significant differences in perioperative times.

RESULTS

There were multiple reports of differences in OR times based on the procedure(s), perioperative team including primary surgeon, and type of anesthetic, in that sequence of importance. All such detail may not be known when the case is originally scheduled and thus may require an updated duration the day before surgery. Although the use of these categorical data from OR systems can result in few historical data for estimating each case's duration, bias and imprecision of case duration estimates are unlikely to be affected. There was a report of a difference in case duration based on additional information. However, the incidence of the procedure for the diagnosis was so uncommon as to be unlikely to affect OR management.

CONCLUSIONS

Matching findings of prior studies using OR information system data, multiple case series show that it is important to rely on the precise procedure(s), surgical team, and type of anesthetic when estimating case durations. OR information systems need to incorporate the statistical methods designed for small numbers of prior surgical cases. Future research should focus on the most effective methods to update the prediction of each case's duration as these data become available. The case series did not reveal additional data which could be cost-effectively integrated with OR information systems data to improve the accuracy of predicted durations for general thoracic surgery cases.

Reoperation for dysphagia after cardiomyotomy for achalasia

BACKGROUND

Although laparoscopic cardiomyotomy is considered to be the treatment of choice for achalasia, there is no consensus about how persistent or recurrent dysphagia after myotomy should be treated. In the current study we evaluated our experience with reoperation following previous cardiomyotomy.

METHODS

Between 1992 and 2006, 19 patients underwent re-myotomy: 7 for persistent dysphagia, 12 for recurrent dysphagia. Different operative approaches were used, depending on surgeon's preference and the technique used for the first operation.

RESULTS

The mean interval between the cardiomyotomies was 81 months. In 12 patients, the alternative body cavity to that used for the first operation was used for access in the revision operation. This was associated with a shorter operation time. Mean follow-up after the revision operation was 3.6 years. Mean satisfaction score was 7 (out of 10), and 89% of patients had an improvement in symptoms.

CONCLUSION

Reoperation for persistent or recurrent achalasia achieves a satisfactory outcome in most patients. Using the alternative body cavity to that used in the original procedure facilitates minimal access techniques, and gives easier access to the operative field.

Results of laparoscopic Heller myotomy without anti-reflux procedure in achalasia. Monocentric prospective study of 106 cases

BACKGROUND

Heller myotomy (HM) combined with an anti-reflux procedure has been shown to be effective for the treatment of achalasia, as postoperative gastro-esophageal reflux (GER) is observed in about 10% of the cases. Laparoscopy has brought an undeniable benefit in providing excellent visualisation of the gastro-esophageal junction (GEJ) without lateral and posterior dissection. Respecting the anatomical fixation of the GEJ seems to permit the performing of HM without an anti-reflux procedure, the need for which is therefore debatable. The purpose of this study was to analyse the results of this controversial procedure.

METHODS

A monocentric prospective study was carried out on 106 patients who underwent HM without an anti-reflux procedure. The postoperative assessment consisted of a manometry and a 24-hour pH study two months after surgery, and a yearly clinical examination for a minimum of five years. The data capture was done using a statistical analysis.

RESULTS

There was no mortality, one conversion to an open procedure, and four mucosal perforations. Postoperative morbidity was 2%. The average follow-up period was 55 months (range, 2 to 166), with 10 patients lost to follow-up. Good functional results were observed in 91.4% of patients at one year, and 78.6% at five years. Two months after surgery, a 9.4% prevalence of GER was detected in the pH study, and the lower esophageal sphincter pressure had significantly decreased. After a long term follow-up we observed an 11.3% global rate of GER. No repeat surgery was necessary to control postoperative GER.

CONCLUSIONS

Laparoscopic HM without anti-reflux procedure gives good functional results provided the anatomical fixation of the GOJ is respected.

Laparoscopic Heller myotomy with or without partial fundoplication: A matter of debate

AIM: To present our experience of laparoscopic Heller stretching myotomy followed by His angle reconstruction as surgical approach to esophageal achalasia.

METHODS: Thirty-two patients underwent laparoscopic Heller myotomy; an anterior partial fundoplication in 17, and angle of His reconstruction in 15 cases represented the antireflux procedure of choice.

RESULTS: There were no morbidity and mortality recorded in both anterior funduplication and angle of His reconstruction groups. No differences were detected in terms of recurrent dysphagia, p.o. reflux or medical therapy.

CONCLUSION: To reduce the incidence of recurrent achalasia after laparoscopic Heller myotomy, we believe that His’ angle reconstruction is a safe and effective alternative to the anterior fundoplication.

Treatment of Achalasia

Achalasia is a primary motility disorder of the esophagus that causes dysphagia. Normal esophageal motility and lower esophageal sphincter (LES) function can not be restored; thus treatment is directed at decreasing the pressure or disrupting the muscle fibers of the LES to allow passage of ingested material. Effective therapy for achalasia can be broadly characterized as surgery based or endoscopy based. Medications (calcium channel blockers and nitrate derivatives) do not provide adequate relief of dysphagia and have substantial side effects, and thus are rarely used as long-term therapy. Botulinum toxin injection, a recently introduced endoscopic therapy, enjoyed much enthusiasm initially but was shown to have only transient effect and is now recommended only for poor operative candidates. The mainstay of therapy remains endoscopic dilation or laparoscopic esophagomyotomy (LEM) combined with an antireflux procedure. We have found that patients who can tolerate a laparoscopic abdominal surgery are best served with an LEM and Toupet (270 degrees ) posterior fundoplication. This provides good or excellent relief of dysphagia in 90% to 95% of patients with very little morbidity.

Cicatrização da miotomia de Heller por acesso videolaparoscópico com e sem fundocardioplastia de dor associada, em porcos

OBJETIVO: Comparar a cicatrização da miotomia esofagiana laparoscópica associada ou não à fundocardioplastia de Dor. MÉTODO: Foram utilizados 18 porcos, em três grupos de seis animais. No grupo A foi realizada miotomia esofagiana. No grupo B associou-se plicatura gástrica à miotomia. O grupo C foi sem miotomia. No 21º dia pós-operatório houve moldagem do lume para obter índices de estenose (IE) na região da miotomia (RM) e na transição esôfago-gástrica (I'E'). Foram também estudados aspectos macro e microscópicos. RESULTADOS: Duração maior (t de Student) no grupo B (93,6 minutos) que no A (45 minutos). Considerando- se o IE dos grupos A e B, não houve estenose e eles se equivaleram - Mann-Withney (-11.1% no grupo A e -12.7% no grupo B). O I'E' foi sempre maior que o IE - Wilcoxon (18% versus -11,1% no grupo A e 37,7 % versus -12.7% no grupo B). O I'E' do grupo B (37,7%) foi o maior entre os grupos (Kruskal-Wallis): A: 18%; C: 15,5%. Houve regularidade macroscópica da região da miotomia do grupo A e deformidades com inflamação aguda persistente e granulomas no B. No grupo A houve epitelização mesotelial e no B a superfície cruenta permaneceu granulada. Na RM do grupo B, leucócitos (22 versus 8,6 do A) e vasos (18,7 versus 9,7 da A) foram mais numerosos. A fibrose foi mais profusa no grupo B (25,85 fibras versus 15,6 no A). CONCLUSÕES: A plicatura gástrica sobre a miotomia esofagiana propicia cicatrização menos adequada e é mais demorada que a miotomia isolada.

Achalasia: a comprehensive review

Achalasia is a rare neurologic deficit of the esophagus, producing a syndrome of impaired relaxation of the lower esophageal sphincter and decreased motility of the esophageal body for which the cause is unknown. The resultant chronic esophageal stasis produces discomforting symptoms that can be managed with medication, chemical paralysis of the lower esophageal sphincter, mechanical dilation, or surgical esophagomyotomy. Chemical paralysis by injection of the esophagus with botulinum toxin and dilation with an inflatable balloon offers good short-term relief of symptoms; however, the best long-term results are produced by surgery, and advancing minimally invasive techniques continually reduce the morbidity of these operations. The type of surgical procedure, the necessity for fundoplication, and the order of treatment continue to be unresolved issues, but prospective evaluation with objective followup should allow us to provide the optimal treatment regimen to our patients.