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Zhang M, Liu M, Chen H, Qiu T, Jin X, Fu W, Teng Q, Zhao C, Xu J, Li Z, Zhang X. PB2 residue 473 contributes to the mammalian virulence of H7N9 avian influenza virus by modulating viral polymerase activity via ANP32A. J Virol 2024; 98:e0194423. [PMID: 38421166 PMCID: PMC10949425 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01944-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2023] [Accepted: 02/14/2024] [Indexed: 03/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Since the first human infection reported in 2013, H7N9 avian influenza virus (AIV) has been regarded as a serious threat to human health. In this study, we sought to identify the virulence determinant of the H7N9 virus in mammalian hosts. By comparing the virulence of the SH/4664 H7N9 virus, a non-virulent H9N2 virus, and various H7N9-H9N2 hybrid viruses in infected mice, we first pinpointed PB2 as the primary viral factor accounting for the difference between H7N9 and H9N2 in mammalian virulence. We further analyzed the in vivo effects of individually mutating H7N9 PB2 residues different from the closely related H9N2 virus and consequently found residue 473, alongside the well-known residue 627, to be critical for the virulence of the H7N9 virus in mice and the activity of its reconstituted viral polymerase in mammalian cells. The importance of PB2-473 was further strengthened by studying reverse H7N9 substitutions in the H9N2 background. Finally, we surprisingly found that species-specific usage of ANP32A, a family member of host factors connecting with the PB2-627 polymorphism, mediates the contribution of PB2 473 residue to the mammalian adaption of AIV polymerase, as the attenuating effect of PB2 M473T on the viral polymerase activity and viral growth of the H7N9 virus could be efficiently complemented by co-expression of chicken ANP32A but not mouse ANP32A and ANP32B. Together, our studies uncovered the PB2 473 residue as a novel viral host range determinant of AIVs via species-specific co-opting of the ANP32 host factor to support viral polymerase activity.IMPORTANCEThe H7N9 avian influenza virus has been considered to have the potential to cause the next pandemic since the first case of human infection reported in 2013. In this study, we identified PB2 residue 473 as a new determinant of mouse virulence and mammalian adaptation of the viral polymerase of the H7N9 virus and its non-pathogenic H9N2 counterparts. We further demonstrated that the variation in PB2-473 is functionally linked to differential co-opting of the host ANP32A protein in supporting viral polymerase activity, which is analogous to the well-known PB2-627 polymorphism, albeit the two PB2 positions are spatially distant. By providing new mechanistic insight into the PB2-mediated host range determination of influenza A viruses, our study implicated the potential existence of multiple PB2-ANP32 interfaces that could be targets for developing new antivirals against the H7N9 virus as well as other mammalian-adapted influenza viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miaomiao Zhang
- Shanghai Public Health Clinical Center, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Shanghai, China
| | - Mingbin Liu
- Shanghai Public Health Clinical Center, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Hongjun Chen
- Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Shanghai, China
| | - Tianyi Qiu
- Zhongshan Hospital, Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xuanxuan Jin
- Academy for Advanced Interdisciplinary Studies, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Weihui Fu
- Shanghai Public Health Clinical Center, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Qiaoyang Teng
- Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Shanghai, China
| | - Chen Zhao
- Shanghai Public Health Clinical Center, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Jianqing Xu
- Shanghai Public Health Clinical Center, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
- Zhongshan Hospital, Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Zejun Li
- Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiaoyan Zhang
- Shanghai Public Health Clinical Center, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
- Zhongshan Hospital, Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
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Pinto SM, Subbannayya Y, Kim H, Hagen L, Górna MW, Nieminen AI, Bjørås M, Espevik T, Kainov D, Kandasamy RK. Multi-OMICs landscape of SARS-CoV-2-induced host responses in human lung epithelial cells. iScience 2022; 26:105895. [PMID: 36590899 PMCID: PMC9794516 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2022.105895] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2022] [Revised: 12/03/2022] [Accepted: 12/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
COVID-19 pandemic continues to remain a global health concern owing to the emergence of newer variants. Several multi-Omics studies have produced extensive evidence on host-pathogen interactions and potential therapeutic targets. Nonetheless, an increased understanding of host signaling networks regulated by post-translational modifications and their ensuing effect on the cellular dynamics is critical to expanding the current knowledge on SARS-CoV-2 infections. Through an unbiased transcriptomics, proteomics, acetylomics, phosphoproteomics, and exometabolome analysis of a lung-derived human cell line, we show that SARS-CoV-2 Norway/Trondheim-S15 strain induces time-dependent alterations in the induction of type I IFN response, activation of DNA damage response, dysregulated Hippo signaling, among others. We identified interplay of phosphorylation and acetylation dynamics on host proteins and its effect on the altered release of metabolites, especially organic acids and ketone bodies. Together, our findings serve as a resource of potential targets that can aid in designing novel host-directed therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sneha M. Pinto
- Centre of Molecular Inflammation Research (CEMIR), and Department of Clinical and Molecular Medicine (IKOM), Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 7491 Trondheim, Norway,Corresponding author
| | - Yashwanth Subbannayya
- Centre of Molecular Inflammation Research (CEMIR), and Department of Clinical and Molecular Medicine (IKOM), Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 7491 Trondheim, Norway
| | - Hera Kim
- Centre of Molecular Inflammation Research (CEMIR), and Department of Clinical and Molecular Medicine (IKOM), Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 7491 Trondheim, Norway
| | - Lars Hagen
- Department of Clinical and Molecular Medicine, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), 7491 Trondheim, Norway,Proteomics and Modomics Experimental Core, PROMEC, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), 7491 Trondheim, Norway
| | - Maria W. Górna
- Structural Biology Group, Biological and Chemical Research Centre, Department of Chemistry, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Anni I. Nieminen
- Institute for Molecular Medicine Finland, University of Helsinki, 00014Helsinki, Finland
| | - Magnar Bjørås
- Department of Clinical and Molecular Medicine, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), 7491 Trondheim, Norway
| | - Terje Espevik
- Centre of Molecular Inflammation Research (CEMIR), and Department of Clinical and Molecular Medicine (IKOM), Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 7491 Trondheim, Norway
| | - Denis Kainov
- Department of Clinical and Molecular Medicine, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), 7491 Trondheim, Norway
| | - Richard K. Kandasamy
- Centre of Molecular Inflammation Research (CEMIR), and Department of Clinical and Molecular Medicine (IKOM), Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 7491 Trondheim, Norway,Department of Clinical and Molecular Medicine, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), 7491 Trondheim, Norway,Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, Centre for Individualized Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA,Corresponding author
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3
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Cellular hnRNPAB interacts with avian influenza viral protein PB2 and inhibits virus replication potentially by restricting PB2 mRNA nuclear export and PB2 protein level. Virus Res 2021; 305:198573. [PMID: 34555436 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2021.198573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2021] [Revised: 09/07/2021] [Accepted: 09/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The PB2 protein of avian influenza virus (AIV) is essential for transcription and replication of virus genome. In this study, we reported that chicken heterogenous nuclear riboncleoprotein AB (hnRNPAB) cooperated with avian influenza viral protein PB2 and inhibited the polymerase activity and virus replication. We found that hnRNPAB was associated with PB2 mRNA and overexpression of hnRNPAB reduced PB2 mRNA nuclear export and PB2 protein level, but had no influence on PB2 mRNA level. At the same time, overexpression of hnRNPAB also reduced protein levels rather than mRNA levels of PA, PB1 and NP. In addition, overexpression of hnRNPAB restricted the polymerase activity and virus replication, while knockdown of hnRNPAB resulted in enhanced polymerase activity and virus replication. Lastly, virus infection induced the nuclear accumulation of hnRNPAB, but did not cause the change of expression level of endogenous hnRNPAB in DF-1 cells. Collectively, these findings suggested that hnRNPAB played a restrictive role in polymerase activity and virus replication potentially through inhibiting PB2 mRNA nuclear export and PB2 protein level.
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Park YH, Woo SJ, Chungu K, Lee SB, Shim JH, Lee HJ, Kim I, Rengaraj D, Song CS, Suh JY, Lim JM, Han JY. Asp149 and Asp152 in chicken and human ANP32A play an essential role in the interaction with influenza viral polymerase. FASEB J 2021; 35:e21630. [PMID: 33982347 DOI: 10.1096/fj.202002006rr] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2020] [Revised: 04/11/2021] [Accepted: 04/13/2021] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
The acidic nuclear phosphoprotein 32 family member A (ANP32A) is a cellular host factor that determines the host tropism of the viral polymerase (vPol) of avian influenza viruses (AIVs). Compared with human ANP32A (hANP32A), chicken ANP32A contains an additional 33 amino acid residues (176-208) duplicated from amino acid residues 149-175 (27 residues), suggesting that these residues could be involved in increasing vPol activity by strengthening interactions between ANP32A and vPol. However, the molecular interactions and functional roles of the 27 residues within hANP32A during AIV vPol activity remain unclear. Here, we examined the functional role of 27 residues of hANP32A based on comparisons with other human (h) ANP32 family members. It was notable that unlike hANP32A and hANP32B, hANP32C could not support vPol activity or replication of AIVs, despite the fact that hANP32C shares a higher sequence identity with hANP32A than hANP32B. Pairwise comparison between hANP32A and hANP32C revealed that Asp149 (D149) and Asp152 (D152) are involved in hydrogen bonding and electrostatic interactions, respectively, which support vPol activity. Mutation of these residues reduced the interaction between hANP32A and vPol. Finally, we demonstrated that precise substitution of the identified residues within chicken ANP32A via homology-directed repair using the CRISPR/Cas9 system resulted in a marked reduction of viral replication in chicken cells. These results increase our understanding of ANP32A function and may facilitate the development of AIV-resistant chickens via precise modification of residues within ANP32A.
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Affiliation(s)
- Young Hyun Park
- Department of Agricultural Biotechnology and Research Institute of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Seung Je Woo
- Department of Agricultural Biotechnology and Research Institute of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Kelly Chungu
- Department of Agricultural Biotechnology and Research Institute of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Su Bin Lee
- Department of Agricultural Biotechnology and Research Institute of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Ji Hyeon Shim
- Department of Agricultural Biotechnology and Research Institute of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Hong Jo Lee
- Department of Agricultural Biotechnology and Research Institute of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Iktae Kim
- Department of Agricultural Biotechnology and Research Institute of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Deivendran Rengaraj
- Department of Agricultural Biotechnology and Research Institute of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Chang-Seon Song
- Avian Diseases Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Jeong-Yong Suh
- Department of Agricultural Biotechnology and Research Institute of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Jeong Mook Lim
- Department of Agricultural Biotechnology and Research Institute of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Jae Yong Han
- Department of Agricultural Biotechnology and Research Institute of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
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5
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Li H, Huang L, Yu Y, Ren X, Li B, Zhang J, Liao M, Qi W. Generation of recombinant influenza virus bearing strep tagged PB2 and effective identification of interactional host factors. Vet Microbiol 2021; 254:108985. [PMID: 33550110 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2021.108985] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2020] [Accepted: 01/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The genome of influenza A virus is negative-sense and segmented RNA, which is transcribed and replicated by the viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) during the virus life cycle. The viral RdRp is thought to be an important host range and virulence determinant factor, and the 627 site of PB2 subunit is a highly acceptable key site of RdRp function. Besides, the function of RdRp is modulated by several host factors. Identification of the host factors interacting with RdRp is of great interest. Here, we tried to explore an effective method to study virus-host interaction by rescuing replication-competent recombinant influenza viruses carrying Strep tagged PB2. Subsequently, we tested several biological characteristics of recombinant viruses in cells and pathogenicity in mice. Then, we purified of protein complex of Strep tagged PB2 and host factors of interest from 293 T cells infected with recombinant viruses. After purification, we performed mass spectrometry to identify these proteins that interacting with PB2. We identified 57 host factors in total. Through Gene Ontology (GO) and Protein-Protein interaction (PPI) network analysis, we revealed the function and network of these proteins. In summary, we generated replication-competent recombinant influenza viruses by inserting a Strep-Tag into PB2 and purified host factors interacting with viral RdRp bearing a 627 K or 627E PB2. These proteins might function as host range and virulence determinants of influenza virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huanan Li
- National Avian Influenza Para-Reference Laboratory (Guangzhou), College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China; Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Guangzhou, 510642, China; Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Guangzhou, 510642, China; National and Regional Joint Engineering Laboratory for Medicament of Zoonosis Prevention and Control, Guangzhou, 510642, China; Key Laboratory of Zoonoses Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou, 510642, China
| | - Lihong Huang
- National Avian Influenza Para-Reference Laboratory (Guangzhou), College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China; Department of Biomedical Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Yuandi Yu
- National Avian Influenza Para-Reference Laboratory (Guangzhou), College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China; Chongqing Academy of Animal Sciences, Chonqing, 402460, China
| | - Xingxing Ren
- National Avian Influenza Para-Reference Laboratory (Guangzhou), College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China; Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Guangzhou, 510642, China; Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Guangzhou, 510642, China
| | - Bo Li
- National Avian Influenza Para-Reference Laboratory (Guangzhou), College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China; Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Guangzhou, 510642, China; National and Regional Joint Engineering Laboratory for Medicament of Zoonosis Prevention and Control, Guangzhou, 510642, China; Key Laboratory of Zoonoses Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou, 510642, China
| | - Jiahao Zhang
- National Avian Influenza Para-Reference Laboratory (Guangzhou), College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China; Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Guangzhou, 510642, China; Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Guangzhou, 510642, China; National and Regional Joint Engineering Laboratory for Medicament of Zoonosis Prevention and Control, Guangzhou, 510642, China; Key Laboratory of Zoonoses Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou, 510642, China
| | - Ming Liao
- National Avian Influenza Para-Reference Laboratory (Guangzhou), College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China; Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Guangzhou, 510642, China; Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Guangzhou, 510642, China; National and Regional Joint Engineering Laboratory for Medicament of Zoonosis Prevention and Control, Guangzhou, 510642, China; Key Laboratory of Zoonoses Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou, 510642, China.
| | - Wenbao Qi
- National Avian Influenza Para-Reference Laboratory (Guangzhou), College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China; Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Guangzhou, 510642, China; Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Guangzhou, 510642, China; National and Regional Joint Engineering Laboratory for Medicament of Zoonosis Prevention and Control, Guangzhou, 510642, China; Key Laboratory of Zoonoses Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou, 510642, China.
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Guo S, Bao L, Li C, Sun J, Zhao R, Cui X. Antiviral activity of iridoid glycosides extracted from Fructus Gardeniae against influenza A virus by PACT-dependent suppression of viral RNA replication. Sci Rep 2020; 10:1897. [PMID: 32024921 PMCID: PMC7002373 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-58443-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2019] [Accepted: 01/15/2020] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Epidemic and pandemic influenza A virus (IAV) poses a significant threat to human populations worldwide. Iridoid glycosides are principal bioactive components from the Gardenia jasminoides J. Ellis fruit that exhibit antiviral activity against several strains of IAV. In the present study, we evaluated the protective effect of Fructus Gardeniae iridoid glycoside extracts (IGEs) against IAV by cytopathogenic effect(CPE), MTT and a plaque formation assay in vitro and examined the reduction in the pulmonary index (PI), restoration of body weight, reduction in mortality and increases in survival time in vivo. As a host factor, PACT provides protection against the pathogenic influenza A virus by interacting with IAV polymerase and activating the IFN-I response. To verify the whether IGEs suppress IAV replication in a PACT-dependent manner, IAV RNA replication, expression of PACT and the phosphorylation of eIF2α in A549 cells were detected; the levels of IFNβ, PACT and PKR in mouse lung tissues were determined; and the activity of IAV polymerase was evaluated in PACT-compromised cells. The results indicated that IGEs sufficiently alleviated cell damage and suppressed IAV replication in vitro, protecting mice from IAV-induced injury and lethal IAV infection. These anti-IAV effects might be related to disrupted interplay between IVA polymerase and PACT and/or prevention of a PACT-dependent overactivated IFN-I antiviral response. Taken together, our findings reveal a new facet of the mechanisms by which IGEs fight the influenza A virus in a PACT-dependent manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shanshan Guo
- Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, No.4 Yinghua East Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing, 100029, China
| | - Lei Bao
- Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, No.4 Yinghua East Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing, 100029, China
| | - Chun Li
- Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, No.4 Yinghua East Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing, 100029, China
| | - Jing Sun
- Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, No.4 Yinghua East Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing, 100029, China
| | - Ronghua Zhao
- Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, No.4 Yinghua East Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing, 100029, China
| | - Xiaolan Cui
- Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, No.4 Yinghua East Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing, 100029, China.
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Chua SCJH, Tan HQ, Engelberg D, Lim LHK. Alternative Experimental Models for Studying Influenza Proteins, Host-Virus Interactions and Anti-Influenza Drugs. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2019; 12:E147. [PMID: 31575020 PMCID: PMC6958409 DOI: 10.3390/ph12040147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2019] [Revised: 09/11/2019] [Accepted: 09/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Ninety years after the discovery of the virus causing the influenza disease, this malady remains one of the biggest public health threats to mankind. Currently available drugs and vaccines only partially reduce deaths and hospitalizations. Some of the reasons for this disturbing situation stem from the sophistication of the viral machinery, but another reason is the lack of a complete understanding of the molecular and physiological basis of viral infections and host-pathogen interactions. Even the functions of the influenza proteins, their mechanisms of action and interaction with host proteins have not been fully revealed. These questions have traditionally been studied in mammalian animal models, mainly ferrets and mice (as well as pigs and non-human primates) and in cell lines. Although obviously relevant as models to humans, these experimental systems are very complex and are not conveniently accessible to various genetic, molecular and biochemical approaches. The fact that influenza remains an unsolved problem, in combination with the limitations of the conventional experimental models, motivated increasing attempts to use the power of other models, such as low eukaryotes, including invertebrate, and primary cell cultures. In this review, we summarized the efforts to study influenza in yeast, Drosophila, zebrafish and primary human tissue cultures and the major contributions these studies have made toward a better understanding of the disease. We feel that these models are still under-utilized and we highlight the unique potential each model has for better comprehending virus-host interactions and viral protein function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonja C J H Chua
- Department of Physiology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117593, Singapore.
- NUS Immunology Program, Life Sciences Institute, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117456, Singapore.
- CREATE-NUS-HUJ Molecular Mechanisms of Inflammatory Diseases Programme, National University of Singapore, Singapore 138602, Singapore.
| | - Hui Qing Tan
- Department of Physiology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117593, Singapore.
- NUS Immunology Program, Life Sciences Institute, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117456, Singapore.
| | - David Engelberg
- CREATE-NUS-HUJ Molecular Mechanisms of Inflammatory Diseases Programme, National University of Singapore, Singapore 138602, Singapore.
- Department of Microbiology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117545, Singapore.
- Department of Biological Chemistry, The Institute of Life Science, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 9190401, Israel.
| | - Lina H K Lim
- Department of Physiology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117593, Singapore.
- NUS Immunology Program, Life Sciences Institute, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117456, Singapore.
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