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Wolf W, Tomasello M. A Shared Intentionality Account of Uniquely Human Social Bonding. PERSPECTIVES ON PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 2025; 20:264-275. [PMID: 37883801 PMCID: PMC11881526 DOI: 10.1177/17456916231201795] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2023]
Abstract
Many mechanisms of social bonding are common to all primates, but humans seemingly have developed some that are unique to the species. These involve various kinds of interactive experiences-from taking a walk together to having a conversation-whose common feature is the triadic sharing of experience. Current theories of social bonding have no explanation for why humans should have these unique bonding mechanisms. Here we propose a shared intentionality account of uniquely human social bonding. Humans evolved to participate with others in unique forms of cooperative and communicative activities that both depend on and create shared experience. Sharing experience in these activities causes partners to feel closer because it allows them to assess their partner's cooperative competence and motivation toward them and because the shared representations created during such interactions make subsequent cooperative interactions easier and more effective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wouter Wolf
- Department of Developmental Psychology, Utrecht University
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University
| | - Michael Tomasello
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University
- Department of Developmental and Comparative Psychology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
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Zhang T, Liu SQ, Xia YN, Li BW, Wang X, Li JH. Aging-Related Behavioral Patterns in Tibetan Macaques. BIOLOGY 2023; 12:1325. [PMID: 37887035 PMCID: PMC10604545 DOI: 10.3390/biology12101325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2023] [Revised: 10/04/2023] [Accepted: 10/06/2023] [Indexed: 10/28/2023]
Abstract
Aging can induce changes in social behaviors among humans and nonhuman primates (NHPs). Therefore, investigating the aging process in primate species can provide valuable evidence regarding age-related concerns in humans. However, the link between aging and behavioral patterns in nonhuman primates remains poorly comprehended. To address this gap, the present research examined aging-related behaviors exhibited by Tibetan macaques (Macaca thibetana) in their natural habitat in Huangshan, China, during the period from October 2020 to June 2021. We collected behavioral data from 25 adult macaques using different data collection methods, including focal animal sampling and ad libitum sampling methods. We found that among adult female macaques, the frequency of being attacked decreased with their age, and that the frequency of approaching other monkeys also decreased as age increased. In males, however, this was not the case. Our findings demonstrate that older female macaques exhibit active conflict avoidance, potentially attributed to a reduction in the frequency of approaching conspecifics and a decreased likelihood of engaging in conflict behaviors. This study provides some important data for investigating aging in NHPs and confirms that Macaca can exhibit a preference for social partners under aging-related contexts similar to humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tong Zhang
- School of Resources and Environmental Engineering, Anhui University, Hefei 230601, China; (T.Z.); (S.-Q.L.)
- International Collaborative Research Center for Huangshan Biodiversity and Tibetan Macaque Behavioral Ecology, Hefei 230601, China
| | - Shen-Qi Liu
- School of Resources and Environmental Engineering, Anhui University, Hefei 230601, China; (T.Z.); (S.-Q.L.)
- International Collaborative Research Center for Huangshan Biodiversity and Tibetan Macaque Behavioral Ecology, Hefei 230601, China
| | - Ying-Na Xia
- School of Resources and Environmental Engineering, Anhui University, Hefei 230601, China; (T.Z.); (S.-Q.L.)
- International Collaborative Research Center for Huangshan Biodiversity and Tibetan Macaque Behavioral Ecology, Hefei 230601, China
| | - Bo-Wen Li
- School of Resources and Environmental Engineering, Anhui University, Hefei 230601, China; (T.Z.); (S.-Q.L.)
- International Collaborative Research Center for Huangshan Biodiversity and Tibetan Macaque Behavioral Ecology, Hefei 230601, China
| | - Xi Wang
- School of Resources and Environmental Engineering, Anhui University, Hefei 230601, China; (T.Z.); (S.-Q.L.)
- International Collaborative Research Center for Huangshan Biodiversity and Tibetan Macaque Behavioral Ecology, Hefei 230601, China
| | - Jin-Hua Li
- School of Resources and Environmental Engineering, Anhui University, Hefei 230601, China; (T.Z.); (S.-Q.L.)
- International Collaborative Research Center for Huangshan Biodiversity and Tibetan Macaque Behavioral Ecology, Hefei 230601, China
- School of Life Sciences, Hefei Normal University, Hefei 230601, China
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Kluiver CE, de Jong JA, Massen JJM, Bhattacharjee D. Personality as a Predictor of Time-Activity Budget in Lion-Tailed Macaques (Macaca silenus). Animals (Basel) 2022; 12:ani12121495. [PMID: 35739832 PMCID: PMC9219468 DOI: 10.3390/ani12121495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2022] [Revised: 05/25/2022] [Accepted: 06/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Time-activity budgets describe how animals divide their day into various behaviours and activities, e.g., time spent foraging or resting. Activity budgets can serve as crucial indicators of energy intake and expenditure, providing better knowledge of a species’ lifestyle. The conventional trend has been to explore group-level time-activity budgets; however, individuals may also vary in their time-activity budgets (e.g., one individual foraging more than another), with the influencing mechanisms still poorly understood. We propose that animal personality, a behavioural and cognitive profile that makes one individual different from another, may explain why individuals vary in their time-activity budgets. We used a multi-method approach comprised of behavioural observations and experiments to assess the personality traits of lion-tailed macaques. The observed traits were used to predict individual time-activity budgets, broadly categorised into food-related, active, and resting behaviours. We then discuss the significance of this novel approach in light of lion-tailed macaque ecology, conservation, and welfare. Abstract Time-activity budget, i.e., how a population or an individual divides their day into various behaviours and activities, is an important ecological aspect. Existing research primarily focused on group-level time-activity budgets, while individual variations have only been reported recently. However, little is known about how consistent inter-individual differences or personalities influence time-activity budgets. We examined the personalities of lion-tailed macaques (Macaca silenus) and investigated their influence on individual time-activity budgets. The resulting personality traits, namely persistence, sociability, affiliation, and anxiety, were used to predict the three broad categories of the time-activity budget—food-related, active, and resting behaviours. We found that persistence and sociability positively predicted the time spent being active. Food-related behaviours were positively predicted by persistence, while anxiety was found to influence them negatively. The time spent resting was negatively predicted by persistence. We did not find an effect of affiliation on the time-activity budgets. We discuss these findings in light of the ecology of lion-tailed macaques. Our study highlights the importance of a novel approach that uses animal personality traits as predictors of individual time-activity budgets and offers insights regarding the use of personality assessments in conservation and welfare activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charlotte E. Kluiver
- Animal Behaviour and Cognition, Department of Biology, Utrecht University, Padualaan 8, 3584 CH Utrecht, The Netherlands; (C.E.K.); (J.J.M.M.)
| | - Jolanda A. de Jong
- Department of Applied Biology, Aeres University of Applied Sciences, Arboretum West 98, 1325 WB Almere, The Netherlands;
| | - Jorg J. M. Massen
- Animal Behaviour and Cognition, Department of Biology, Utrecht University, Padualaan 8, 3584 CH Utrecht, The Netherlands; (C.E.K.); (J.J.M.M.)
| | - Debottam Bhattacharjee
- Animal Behaviour and Cognition, Department of Biology, Utrecht University, Padualaan 8, 3584 CH Utrecht, The Netherlands; (C.E.K.); (J.J.M.M.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +31-30-253-2550
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High levels of infant handling by adult males in Rwenzori Angolan colobus (Colobus angolensis ruwenzorii) compared to two closely related species, C. guereza and C. vellerosus. Primates 2021; 62:637-646. [PMID: 33856586 DOI: 10.1007/s10329-021-00907-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2020] [Accepted: 03/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Infant handling (holding or carrying) by adult males is rare in mammals; however, high levels have been reported in some primates. Though infant handling is a costly behaviour, there are many benefits that male handlers can accrue. Infant handling by males is most conspicuous in platyrrhines and tends to be uncommon in catarrhines. In the latter species, research on male-infant interactions has focused on low-cost behaviours, such as proximity and grooming. However, to better understand the evolution of infant handling by males, more data on its occurrence across the Primate order are essential, even in species where it is relatively uncommon. We compare the occurrence of infant handling by males in three closely related species of catarrhine: Colobus vellerosus, C. guereza, and C. angolensis ruwenzorii. We collected focal animal samples on infants to quantify infant handling rates and durations, and found that adult male C. a. ruwenzorii handled infants much more frequently and for much longer than males in the other two species. We discuss how C. a. ruwenzorii's unique social organization may explain high levels of infant handling by adult males in this species. More long-term and detailed comparisons of infant handling across species and populations will shed light on how sociality has shaped the evolution of this behaviour in the Primate order.
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Arseneau-Robar TJM, Changasi AH, Turner E, Teichroeb JA. Diet and Activity Budget in Colobus angolensis ruwenzorii at Nabugabo, Uganda: Are They Energy Maximizers? Folia Primatol (Basel) 2020; 92:35-48. [PMID: 33130677 PMCID: PMC7949237 DOI: 10.1159/000511046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2020] [Accepted: 08/17/2020] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Colobine monkeys are specialized folivores that use foregut fermentation to digest leaves. The slow process of fermentation forces them to spend a lot of time resting and to minimize their energy expenditure to subsist on a lower-quality diet. METHODS We recorded the diet and activity budget of Colobus angolensis ruwenzorii, which form a three-tiered multi-level society, at Lake Nabugabo, Uganda, over 12 months using scan sampling on adults and subadults, to determine whether they utilize the energy minimization strategy typical of colobines. RESULTS We found that the annual diet was primarily comprised of high-quality food resources (young leaves 65% and fruit 31%), and fruits were the only plant part the monkeysselected when available. Both the fruits and young leaves of some species were preferred food items in some months, and mature leaf consumption correlated negatively with preferred food availability. Mature leaves appear to be a fallback food for this population but are rarely relied upon (3%). The C. a. ruwenzoriiat Nabugabo spent less time resting (40%) and more time moving (25%) than is typical for other species of black-and-white colobus. DISCUSSION/CONCLUSION The high-quality diet of this population appears to allow them to utilize an energy maximization strategy. Their reliance on food items that tend to be clumped in space and time likely explains the frequent fission-fusion behaviour that we observe between core units. Our findings demonstrate that the foraging strategies of colobines may be more flexible than was previously thought and illustrate how food availability and distribution can impact primate social organization.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Amtul H Changasi
- Department of Anthropology, University of Toronto Scarborough, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Evan Turner
- Department of Health Sciences, Faculty of Science, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Julie A Teichroeb
- Department of Anthropology, University of Toronto Scarborough, Toronto, Ontario, Canada,
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Gettler LT, Boyette AH, Rosenbaum S. Broadening Perspectives on the Evolution of Human Paternal Care and Fathers’ Effects on Children. ANNUAL REVIEW OF ANTHROPOLOGY 2020. [DOI: 10.1146/annurev-anthro-102218-011216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Unlike most mammals, human fathers cooperate with mothers to care for young to an extraordinary degree. Human paternal care likely evolved alongside our unique life history strategy of raising slow-developing, energetically costly children, often in rapid succession. Adaptive frameworks generally assume that paternal provisioning played a critical role in this pattern's emergence. We draw on nonhuman primate data to propose that nonprovisioning forms of low-cost hominin male care were potentially foundational and ratcheted up through evolutionary time, helping facilitate social contexts for later subsistence specialization and sharing. We then argue for expanding the breadth of anthropological research on paternal effects in families, particularly in three domains: direct care and teaching;social capital cultivation; and reduction of family conflict. Anthropologists can greatly contribute to conversations about the determinants of children's development across contexts, but we need to ask more expansive questions about the pathways through which caregivers (including fathers) affect child outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lee T. Gettler
- Department of Anthropology, and Eck Institute for Global Health, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana 46556, USA
| | - Adam H. Boyette
- Department of Human Behavior, Ecology, and Culture, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Stacy Rosenbaum
- Department of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, USA
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana 46556, USA
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Poirier-Poulin S, Teichroeb JA. The vocal repertoire of an African colobine, Colobus angolensis ruwenzorii: a multi-level society compared to congeners in stable groups. BEHAVIOUR 2020. [DOI: 10.1163/1568539x-bja10015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Vocal behaviour offers a window into understanding the social life and evolution of animals. Colobine monkeys show great interspecific and interpopulation variation in their social organization and behaviour. Recent research has shown that Rwenzori Angolan colobus (Colobus angolensis ruwenzorii) differ substantially from other black-and-white colobus in forming a multi-level society. No previous research has been conducted on the communication of C. a. ruwenzorii, but the social complexity hypothesis for communication suggests that more complex societies should evolve more complex communication repertoires. Our objective was to catalogue the vocal repertoire of C. a. ruwenzorii at Nabugabo, Uganda, and to compare it with the data available on congeners regarding intergroup tolerance, vocal repertoire size, and acoustic and behavioural features of vocal communication. Vocalizations were subject to spectrographic and behavioural analysis, and a descriptive analysis of each vocalization type was made. The influence of a few environmental and social factors on calling rates was also examined. We describe five vocalizations (i.e., the snort, roar, squeak, scream and pok) and one non-vocal signal (i.e., the tongue click) in this subspecies and their contexts. Distinct alarm calls are made for dogs, and these are given more often near the edge of the forest where humans frequent. We did not find that C. a. ruwenzorii showed a greater vocal repertoire than C. guereza or C. polykomos, which do not live in multi-level societies. Further, preliminary data do not indicate greater calling rates in larger core units of C. a. ruwenzorii compared to smaller units. These findings support the view that these primates’ vocalizations tend to be relatively conserved despite large differences in social organization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel Poirier-Poulin
- Department of Anthropology, University of Toronto Scarborough, 1265 Military Trail, Toronto, ON M1C 1A4, Canada
| | - Julie A. Teichroeb
- Department of Anthropology, University of Toronto Scarborough, 1265 Military Trail, Toronto, ON M1C 1A4, Canada
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Miller A, Uddin S, Judge DS, Kaplin BA, Ndayishimiye D, Uwingeneye G, Grueter CC. Spatiotemporal association patterns in a supergroup of Rwenzori black-and-white colobus (Colobus angolensis ruwenzorii) are consistent with a multilevel society. Am J Primatol 2020; 82:e23127. [PMID: 32249977 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.23127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2019] [Revised: 03/14/2020] [Accepted: 03/18/2020] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Primates display broad diversity in their social organization. The social groups of a few primate species are organized in a multilevel fashion, with large groups composed of multiple, core one-male units (OMUs). A characteristic of multilevel societies is that the higher levels can include hundreds of individuals. The Rwenzori black-and-white colobus (Colobus angolensis ruwenzorii) in the montane forests of Rwanda form supergroups and have been suspected to exhibit multilevel social organization. Here we present the first data on the "anatomy" of a supergroup numbering 500+ individuals. We identified subgroups within the supergroup based on progression data, extracting the social network structure from the time-stamped spatiotemporal distribution of passing individuals identified to age-sex class, and selecting an optimal time window for each network using the two-step approach developed by Uddin, Choudhury, Farhad, and Rahman (2017). We detail the existence of core units-multi-male units (MMUs) with a mean of 1.7 adult males and 3.1 adult females, as well as OMUs, all-female units and bachelor units composed of adult and sub-adult males. More than two-thirds of units are MMUs. These grouping patterns conform to a multilevel society with predominantly multi-male core units, a social system that has recently also been described for a population of the same taxon in Uganda. Individual identification will be required to corroborate these interpretations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex Miller
- School of Human Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Shahadat Uddin
- Complex Systems Research Group, Faculty of Engineering and Information Technologies, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Debra S Judge
- School of Human Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Beth A Kaplin
- Center of Excellence in Biodiversity & Natural Resource Management, University of Rwanda, Huye, Rwanda.,School for the Environment, University of Massachusetts, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Dieudonne Ndayishimiye
- Center of Excellence in Biodiversity & Natural Resource Management, University of Rwanda, Huye, Rwanda
| | - Grace Uwingeneye
- Center of Excellence in Biodiversity & Natural Resource Management, University of Rwanda, Huye, Rwanda
| | - Cyril C Grueter
- School of Human Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia.,Centre for Evolutionary Biology, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia.,UWA Africa Research & Engagement Centre, The University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
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Diet and Use of Fallback Foods by Rwenzori Black-and-White Colobus (Colobus angolensis ruwenzorii) in Rwanda: Implications for Supergroup Formation. INT J PRIMATOL 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s10764-020-00143-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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Teichroeb JA, Stead SM, Edwards PD, Landry F, Palme R, Boonstra R. Anogenital distance as a measure of male competitive ability in Rwenzori Angolan colobus. Am J Primatol 2020; 82:e23111. [PMID: 32083334 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.23111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2019] [Revised: 01/15/2020] [Accepted: 02/09/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Anogenital distance (AGD) is positively correlated to fetal androgen exposure and developmental masculinization in mammals. Independent of overall body size, AGD shows a strong positive correlation with male fertility and in rodents, AGD is a good indicator of male competitive ability and is associated with female choice. We hypothesized that AGD will also predict male competitive ability in non-human primates. To test this, we measured AGD noninvasively with a parallel laser in a wild population of Angolan colobus monkeys (Colobus angolensis ruwenzorii) in Uganda and correlated to it to their social structure. C. angolensis ruwenzorii form a multilevel society with both one-male/multifemale units (OMUs) and multimale/multifemale units (MMUs). We compared AGD in males from five OMUs and six MMUs and related it to their fecal androgen metabolite concentrations, dominance rank and body size, and to the number of females in their unit. Males in OMUs had greater access to females, so were predicted to have longer AGDs, but this was not found. AGD also did not correlate overall with mean fecal androgen metabolites in MMUs. However, AGD was correlated with dominance rank in MMUs, demonstrating that higher-ranking males in these multimale units had longer AGDs. Body size did not show the same relationship with dominance rank, suggesting that male rank was not just a reflection of absolute male size. Our findings indicate that AGD predicts male competitive ability in this species and that it may be a useful correlate throughout the non-human primates. These results also support the idea that prenatal androgen exposure increases the likelihood of the expression of behaviors that maintain high dominance rank.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie A Teichroeb
- Department of Anthropology, University of Toronto Scarborough, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Samantha M Stead
- Department of Anthropology, University of Toronto Scarborough, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Phoebe D Edwards
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Toronto Scarborough, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Florence Landry
- Department of Anthropology, University of Toronto Scarborough, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Rupert Palme
- Unit of Physiology, Pathophysiology and Experimental Endocrinology, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
| | - Rudy Boonstra
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Toronto Scarborough, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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Stead SM, Teichroeb JA. A multi-level society comprised of one-male and multi-male core units in an African colobine (Colobus angolensis ruwenzorii). PLoS One 2019; 14:e0217666. [PMID: 31618212 PMCID: PMC6795445 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0217666] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2019] [Accepted: 10/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Several mammalian species exhibit complex, nested social organizations, termed multi-level or modular societies. Multi-level societies comprise stable core units that fission and fuse with one another in a hierarchical manner, forming groups that vary in size over time. Among nonhuman primates, these social systems have been confirmed in several African papionin and Asian colobine species. We use data from August 2017 to July 2018 on individually-recognized Rwenzori Angolan colobus living near Lake Nabugabo, Uganda to document the first multi-level society in an African colobine. The study band comprised up to 135 individuals organized into 12 socially and spatially distinct core units that ranged in size from 4 to 23 individuals. These core units showed a strong affinity to one another, spending roughly 75% of their time together. Core units fissioned and fused non-randomly with one another throughout the day, leading to different combinations of core units being observed. Using association indices between core units, we employed hierarchical cluster analyses and permutation tests to show that some core units associated preferentially into clans. Thus, we confirm three tiers of social organization for Rwenzori Angolan colobus: core unit, clan, and band. The social organization of this subspecies is unlike any reported previously in a nonhuman primate, with about half the core units containing a single adult male and the others containing multiple reproductive adult males. The discovery of a unique primate multi-level society in a novel lineage could allow for a better understanding of the evolution of these complex social systems across the Animal Kingdom. Preliminary data show males transfer within the band and females transfer outside of the band, which is proposed for hominin multi-level societies. This subspecies could thus also provide insight into the selective pressures underlying multi-level societies in our own lineage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samantha M Stead
- Department of Anthropology, University of Toronto Scarborough, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- School of the Environment, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Julie A Teichroeb
- Department of Anthropology, University of Toronto Scarborough, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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13
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Grooming networks reveal intra- and intersexual social relationships in Macaca thibetana. Primates 2019; 60:223-232. [DOI: 10.1007/s10329-018-00707-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2018] [Accepted: 12/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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