Ixodes frontalis: a neglected but ubiquitous tick species in Germany

Identification of New Microfoci and Genetic Characterization of Tick-Borne Encephalitis Virus Isolates from Eastern Germany and Western Poland

(1) Background: Tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) is the most important tick-borne viral disease in Eurasia, although effective vaccines are available. Caused by the tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV, syn. Orthoflavivirus encephalitidis), in Europe, it is transmitted by ticks like Ixodes ricinus and Dermacentor reticulatus. TBEV circulates in natural foci, making it endemic to specific regions, such as southern Germany and northeastern Poland. Our study aimed to identify new TBEV natural foci and genetically characterize strains in ticks in previously nonendemic areas in Eastern Germany and Western Poland. (2) Methods: Ticks were collected from vegetation in areas reported by TBE patients. After identification, ticks were tested for TBEV in pools of a maximum of 10 specimens using real-time RT-PCR. From the positive TBEV samples, E genes were sequenced. (3) Results: Among 8400 ticks from 19 sites, I. ricinus (n = 4784; 56.9%) was predominant, followed by D. reticulatus (n = 3506; 41.7%), Haemaphysalis concinna (n = 108; 1.3%), and I. frontalis (n = 2; <0.1%). TBEV was detected in 19 pools originating in six sites. The phylogenetic analyses revealed that TBEV strains from Germany and Poland clustered with other German strains, as well as those from Finland and Estonia. (4) Conclusions: Although there are still only a few cases are reported from these areas, people spending much time outdoors should consider TBE vaccination.

Ectoparasites of European hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus) in Germany and their health impact

BACKGROUND

The European hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus) is known for high levels of ectoparasitism that not only represents a health risk for the animals themselves, but also for pet animals and humans as hedgehogs are frequently taken into human care. In the present study, patterns of ectoparasite infestation were assessed in hedgehogs taken into care at northern German animal rehabilitation centres.

METHODS

Ectoparasites (ticks, fleas and mites) of 498 hedgehogs were collected over a period of 3 years from July 2018 to May 2021. Species were identified based on morphological characteristics and also via amplification and sequencing of the partial cytochrome c oxidase subunit 2 (COX-2) gene for fleas of the family Ceratophyllidae. Seasonal changes in infestation patterns as well as correlations with animal age, body weight and health status were assessed using generalised linear models.

RESULTS

Infestation with ticks, fleas and mites occurred throughout the year. Overall, 86.5% (431/498) of the examined hedgehogs were infested with ticks, 91.4% (455/498) with fleas and 17.7% (88/498) with mites. Ixodes ricinus and Ixodes hexagonus/Ixodes canisuga were the most common tick species detected, with the additional occurrence of one Ixodes frontalis. Significant seasonal changes were observed for I. ricinus, but not for I. hexagonus/I. canisuga. Additionally, I. ricinus nymph prevalence declined significantly as of 2020, probably as a consequence of the climate change-related drought as of 2018. In hedgehogs with flea infestations, Archaeopsylla erinacei, Ceratophyllus sciurorum, Nosopsyllus fasciatus and Ctenocephalides felis were identified. In all cases of mite infestation, Caparinia tripilis was detected, in addition to specimens of the family Macronyssidae and free-living mites of the family Acaridae. Statistical analyses showed correlations regarding the factors month, year, body weight and age, but no correlation was evident regarding the health status of the animals.

CONCLUSIONS

With a detected infestation rate of 98.6%, almost all of the examined hedgehogs were infested with at least one ectoparasite species. The seasonal activity patterns of the different ectoparasite species together with the complex annual cycle of hedgehogs lead to different seasonal patterns in ectoparasite prevalence and infestation intensities. Due to the risk of transmission of zoonotic pathogens as well as the possible negative impact on the host itself, hedgehogs should be treated against ectoparasites when taken into care facilities.

Distribution of ticks in the Western Palearctic: an updated systematic review (2015-2021)

BACKGROUND

The distributions of ticks and tick-borne pathogens are thought to have changed rapidly over the last two decades, with their ranges expanding into new regions. This expansion has been driven by a range of environmental and socio-economic factors, including climate change. Spatial modelling is being increasingly used to track the current and future distributions of ticks and tick-borne pathogens and to assess the associated disease risk. However, such analysis is dependent on high-resolution occurrence data for each species. To facilitate such analysis, in this review we have compiled georeferenced tick locations in the Western Palearctic, with a resolution accuracy under 10 km, that were reported between 2015 and 2021 METHODS: The PubMed and Web of Science databases were searched for peer-reviewed papers documenting the distribution of ticks that were published between 2015 and 2021, using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. The papers were then screened and excluded in accordance with the PRISMA flow chart. Coordinate-referenced tick locations along with information on identification and collection methods were extracted from each eligible publication. Spatial analysis was conducted using R software (version 4.1.2).

RESULTS

From the 1491 papers identified during the initial search, 124 met the inclusion criteria, and from these, 2267 coordinate-referenced tick records from 33 tick species were included in the final dataset. Over 30% of articles did not record the tick location adequately to meet inclusion criteria, only providing a location name or general location. Among the tick records, Ixodes ricinus had the highest representation (55%), followed by Dermacentor reticulatus (22.1%) and Ixodes frontalis (4.8%). The majority of ticks were collected from vegetation, with only 19.1% collected from hosts.

CONCLUSIONS

The data presented provides a collection of recent high-resolution, coordinate-referenced tick locations for use in spatial analyses, which in turn can be used in combination with previously collated datasets to analyse the changes in tick distribution and research in the Western Palearctic. In the future it is recommended that, where data privacy rules allow, high-resolution methods are routinely used by researchers to geolocate tick samples and ensure their work can be used to its full potential.

Shift in the seasonality of ixodid ticks after a warm winter in an urban habitat with notes on morphotypes of Ixodes ricinus and data in support of cryptic species within Ixodes frontalis

This study was initiated to assess the seasonality and to investigate the morphology of questing ixodid ticks in an urban habitat in Central Europe, Hungary. A neglected part of a large cemetery, with sparse tree covering and dense lower vegetation, was sampled monthly from February 2019 to May 2021. All ticks were analyzed morphologically, and selected specimens by amplifying and sequencing two genetic markers. During the study 3818 ticks were collected, including Ixodes ricinus (n = 2772), Ixodes frontalis (n = 350) and Haemaphysalis concinna (n = 696). Ixodes ricinus adults and nymphs showed year-round activity, whereas H. concinna was not active during winter months and early spring. Most I. frontalis nymphs were collected in late winter and early spring, whereas the peak activity of larvae was during late autumn. Interestingly, during the spring, the peak activity of I. ricinus adults and nymphs was later (in May) when preceded by a warm winter in 2020. In contrast, the 2019 and 2021 spring activity peaks occurred in March and April after sharply rising temperatures in February. This shift in the peak activity of I. ricinus coincided with the initiation of questing activity of H. concinna. Three notably different morphotypes and four malformed specimens of I. ricinus were found. However, these were not significantly different in their mitochondrial haplotypes and phylogenetic clustering from typical specimens of this species. On the other hand, I. frontalis was represented by two remarkably different haplogroups, between which in the nymph stage there were no recognizable morphological differences, suggesting the status of these as cryptic species.

Hard ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) associated with birds in Europe: Review of literature data

Hard ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) are considered the most important transmitters of pathogens in the temperate zone that covers most of Europe. In the era of climate change tick-borne diseases are predicted to undergo geographical range expansion toward the north through regions that are connected to southern areas of the continent by bird migration. This alone would justify the importance of synthesized knowledge on the association of tick species with avian hosts, yet birds also represent the most taxonomically and ecologically diverse part of urban vertebrate fauna. Birds frequently occur in gardens and near animal keeping facilities, thus playing a significant role in the dispersal of ticks and tick-borne pathogens in synanthropic environments. The primary aim of this review is to provide a comprehensive reference source (baseline data) for future studies, particularly in the context of discovering new tick-host associations after comparison with already published data. The records on the ixodid tick infestations of birds were assessed from nearly 200 papers published since 1952. In this period, 37 hard tick species were reported from 16 orders of avian hosts in Europe. Here we compile a list of these tick species, followed by the English and Latin name of all reported infested bird species, as well as the tick developmental stage and country of origin whenever this information was available. These data allowed a first-hand analysis of general trends regarding how and at which developmental stage of ticks tend to infest avian hosts. Five tick species that were frequently reported from birds and show a broad geographical distribution in the Western Palearctic (Ixodes arboricola, I. frontalis, I. ricinus, Haemaphysalis concinna and Hyalomma marginatum) were also selected for statistical comparisons. Differences were demonstrated between these tick species regarding their association with bird species that typically feed from the ground and those that rarely occur at the soil level. The ecology of these five bird-infesting tick species is also illustrated here according to avian orders, taking into account the ecology (habitat type) and activity (circadian rhythm and feeding level) of most bird species that represent a certain order.

Borreliae Part 1: Borrelia Lyme Group and Echidna-Reptile Group

Simple Summary

Borreliae are spirochaetes, which represent a heterogeneous phylum within bacteria. Spirochaetes are indeed distinguished from other bacteria for their spiral shape, which also characterizes Borreliae. This review describes briefly the organization of the phylum Spirocheteales with a digression about its pathogenicity and historical information about bacteria isolation and characterization. Among spirochaetes, Borrelia genus is here divided into three groups, namely the Lyme group (LG), the Echidna-Reptile group (REPG) and the Relapsing Fever group (RFG). Borreliae Part 1 deals with Lyme group and Echidna-Reptile group Borreliae, while the subject of Borreliae Part 2 is Relapsing Fever group and unclassified Borreliae. Lyme group Borreliae is organized here in sections describing ecology, namely tick vectors and animal hosts, epidemiology, microbiology, and Borrelia genome organization and antigen characterization. Furthermore, the main clinical manifestations in Lyme borreliosis are also described. Although included in the Lyme group due to their particular clinical features, Borrelia causing Baggio Yoshinari syndrome and Borrelia mayonii are described in dedicated paragraphs. The Borrelia Echidna-Reptile group has been recently characterized including spirochaetes that apparently are not pathogenic to humans, but infect reptiles and amphibians. The paragraph dedicated to this group of Borreliae describes their vectors, hosts, geographical distribution and their characteristics.

Abstract

Borreliae are divided into three groups, namely the Lyme group (LG), the Echidna-Reptile group (REPG) and the Relapsing Fever group (RFG). Currently, only Borrelia of the Lyme and RF groups (not all) cause infection in humans. Borreliae of the Echidna-Reptile group represent a new monophyletic group of spirochaetes, which infect amphibians and reptiles. In addition to a general description of the phylum Spirochaetales, including a brief historical digression on spirochaetosis, in the present review Borreliae of Lyme and Echidna-Reptile groups are described, discussing the ecology with vectors and hosts as well as microbiological features and molecular characterization. Furthermore, differences between LG and RFG are discussed with respect to the clinical manifestations. In humans, LG Borreliae are organotropic and cause erythema migrans in the early phase of the disease, while RFG Borreliae give high spirochaetemia with fever, without the development of erythema migrans. With respect of LG Borreliae, recently Borrelia mayonii, with intermediate characteristics between LG and RFG, has been identified. As part of the LG, it gives erythema migrans but also high spirochaetemia with fever. Hard ticks are vectors for both LG and REPG groups, but in LG they are mostly Ixodes sp. ticks, while in REPG vectors do not belong to that genus.

Ticks on the turf: investigating the presence of ixodid ticks on and around football fields in Germany

Ixodes ricinus is the most abundant tick species and an important vector of pathogens in Germany and in large parts of Europe. A few other ixodid tick species, e.g., Dermacentor reticulatus, may also be of eco-epidemiological relevance. As ticks are not only found in natural but also in suburban areas (parks, gardens), the present study investigated whether ticks occur on and near football grounds thus posing a potential risk to players and visitors. Thirty-two football grounds from all 16 German federal states were selected, mainly situated adjacent to a green area (forest, park). Ticks were collected by the conventional flagging method in spring 2018, and nymphs and adults were counted and morphologically determined. Altogether 807 nymphal and adult ticks were collected from 29 football grounds: 714 I. ricinus, 64 Ixodes inopinatus, 2 Ixodes frontalis, 24 Ixodes sp. ticks, and 3 D. reticulatus. Ixodes inopinatus was found in 13 out of 16 German states. Three ticks were even found on the turf of two football fields. It can be concluded that ticks occur quite frequently and sometimes in high abundance near football grounds situated close or adjacent to a forest or a park.

Atlas of ticks (Acari: Argasidae, Ixodidae) in Germany

An updated and increased compilation of georeferenced tick locations in Germany is presented here. This data collection extends the dataset published some years ago by another 1448 new tick locations, 900 locations of which were digitized from literature and 548 locations are published here for the first time. This means that a total of 3492 georeferenced tick locations is now available for Germany. The tick fauna of Germany includes two species of Argasidae in the genera Argas and Carios and 19 species of Ixodidae in the genera Dermacentor, Haemaphysalis, and Ixodes, altogether 21 tick species. In addition, three species of Ixodidae in the genera Hyalomma (each spring imported by migratory birds) and Rhipicephalus (occasionally imported by dogs returning from abroad with their owners) are included in the tick atlas. Of these, the georeferenced locations of 23 tick species are depicted in maps. The occurrence of the one remaining tick species, the recently described Ixodes inopinatus, is given at the level of the federal states. The most common and widespread tick species is Ixodes ricinus, with records in all 16 federal states. With the exception of Hamburg, Dermacentor reticulatus was also found in all federal states. The occurrence of the ixodid ticks Ixodes canisuga, Ixodes frontalis, Ixodes hexagonus and I. inopinatus were documented in at least 11 federal states each. The two mentioned argasid tick species were also documented in numerous federal states, the pigeon tick Argas reflexus in 11 and the bat tick Carios vespertilionis in seven federal states. The atlas of ticks in Germany and the underlying digital dataset in the supplement can be used to improve global tick maps or to study the effects of climate change and habitat alteration on the distribution of tick species.

Where to find questing Ixodes frontalis ticks? Under bamboo bushes!

Tick-borne diseases have a complex epidemiology that depends on different ecological communities, associating several species of vertebrate hosts, vectors and pathogens. While most studies in Europe are focused on Ixodes ricinus, other Ixodes species may also be involved in the transmission or maintenance of pathogens. This is the case of Ixodes frontalis, a poorly known species associated with different bird species such as blackbirds, thrushes and robins, with a wide distribution covering most European countries. In a previous study, high densities of questing I. frontalis larvae were found during autumn-winter at a site close to Nantes (western France) where a long-term survey focused on I. ricinus was conducted. These I. frontalis were mostly observed under bamboo bushes. In the present study, we investigated the presence of I. frontalis under bamboo bushes at various locations. With that aim in mind, a systematic search for questing I. frontalis was undertaken by the flagging method in public urban parks and private gardens presenting bamboo bushes (32 sites). This survey was carried out during autumn-winter to maximize the probability of finding the most abundant stage, i.e. larvae. We searched for I. frontalis first in the area of Nantes (10 sites), then in other regions of France (21 sites) and at one site in northern Italy. A single visit to each site revealed the presence of I. frontalis at 29 out of 32 sites: larvae were always present, nymphs were frequent (59 % of the positive sites), while adults were found at only 14 % of the sites. Questing stages of this understudied species are thus easy to find, by dragging or flagging under bamboo bushes in autumn or winter. We make the assumption that bamboo offers a favourable place for birds to roost overnight outside their breeding period (i.e. spring), sheltered from both predators and wind. This would explain higher densities of I. frontalis under bamboo, relative to other biotopes. As I. frontalis is known to harbour zoonotic pathogens, the consequences of this discovery on the epidemiology of tick-borne diseases are discussed.

Collection of immature Dermacentor reticulatus (Fabricius, 1794) ticks from vegetation and detection of Rickettsia raoultii in them

It is commonly assumed that Dermacentor reticulatus immature life stages are nidicolous and therefore cannot be collected from vegetation. However, in June and July of 2018 and 2019, a total of 47 questing D. reticulatus larvae and two nymphs were collected by the flagging method in two different sites close to the city of Leipzig, Germany. To confirm their role in the transmission of tick-borne pathogens, 45 larvae (pooled by 2 in 21 pools and 1 pool with three individuals) and one nymph were tested either by conventional or real-time PCR for the presence of Bartonella spp., Neoehrlichia mikurensis, Rickettsia spp., and Babesia spp. All samples tested negative for Bartonella spp., N. mikurensis, and Babesia spp.; while the minimal infection rate of larvae for Rickettsia spp. was 42%, and the one tested nymph was also positive. Sequencing partial ompB genes revealed the presence of Rickettsia raoultii in larvae and nymph. Further research needs to be done to determine under which circumstances immature D. reticulatus ticks are found outside the burrows of their hosts and can be collected from vegetation.

Ticks on the Channel Islands and implications for public health

The Channel Islands are British Crown dependencies located in the English Channel to the west of the Normandy coast in northern France. Whilst there have been studies investigating tick occurrence and distribution in different habitats on the mainland of the UK and in France, the Channel Islands have been relatively understudied. As such, little is known about whether the sheep tick, Ixodes ricinus, is present, and whether there is a potential risk of Lyme borreliosis on the Channel Islands. To ascertain the presence of I. ricinus on the three largest islands in the archipelago: Jersey, Guernsey and Alderney, surveys of ticks questing in the vegetation and ticks feeding on hosts were undertaken during April and May 2016. Across all three islands, the highest numbers of ticks were found in woodland habitats. Ixodes ricinus was the predominant questing tick species found on Jersey, and Ixodes ventalloi the most common questing tick species on Alderney and Guernsey, with little or no evidence of questing I. ricinus on either island. During field studies on small mammals, I. ricinus was the predominant tick species feeding on Jersey bank voles (Myodes glareolus caesarius), with Ixodes hexagonus the most common species infesting hedgehogs on Guernsey. We propose that the greater diversity of small mammals on Jersey may be important in supporting immature stages of I. ricinus, in contrast to Guernsey and Alderney. Morphological identification of tick species was confirmed by PCR sequencing based on amplification of the cytochrome c oxidase subunit one (cox1) gene (COI DNA barcoding). To date, there have been few records of human tick bites in the Channel Islands, suggesting that the current risk from tick-borne disease may be low, but continued reporting of any human tick bites, along with reporting of cases of Lyme borreliosis will be important for continued assessment of the impact of tick-borne diseases in the Channel Islands.