A combinatorial approach to the structure elucidation of a pyoverdine siderophore produced by a Pseudomonas putida isolate and the use of pyoverdine as a taxonomic marker for typing P. putida subspecies

Total substitution and partial modification of the set of non-ribosomal peptide synthetases clusters lead to pyoverdine diversity in the Pseudomonas fluorescens complex

Pyoverdines are high affinity siderophores produced by most Pseudomonas with a wide role in microbial interspecies interactions. They are primarily composed of a conserved chromophore moiety, an acyl side chain and a peptide backbone which may be highly variable among strains. Upon ferric iron sequestration, pyoverdines are internalized through specialized receptors. The peptide precursor of pyoverdine, termed ferribactin, is synthesized by a set of non-ribosomal peptide synthetase (NRPS) enzymes and further modified by tailoring enzymes. While PvdL, the NRPS responsible for the synthesis of the peptide moiety that derives into the chromophore is conserved, the NRPSs for the peptide backbone are different across fluorescent Pseudomonas. Although the variation of pyoverdine is a widely recognized characteristic within the genus, the evolutionary events associated with the diversity and distribution of this trait remain mostly unknown. This study analyzed the NRPSs clusters for the biosynthesis of the peptide backbone of ferribactin in the genomes of a representative subset of strains of the Pseudomonas fluorescens complex. Bioinformatic analysis of the specificity of adenylation domains of the NRPSs allowed the prediction of 30 different pyoverdine variants. Phylogenetic reconstruction and mapping of the NRPS clusters pinpointed two different general levels of modifications. In the first level, a complete replacement of the set of NRPRs by horizontal transfer occurs. In the second level, the original set of NRPSs is modified through different mechanisms, including partial substitution of the NRPS genes by horizontal transfer, adenylation domain specificity change or NRPS accessory domain gain/loss.

SIDERITE: Unveiling hidden siderophore diversity in the chemical space through digital exploration

In this work, we introduced a siderophore information database (SIDERTE), a digitized siderophore information database containing 649 unique structures. Leveraging this digitalized data set, we gained a systematic overview of siderophores by their clustering patterns in the chemical space. Building upon this, we developed a functional group-based method for predicting new iron-binding molecules with experimental validation. Expanding our approach to the collection of open natural products (COCONUT) database, we predicted a staggering 3199 siderophore candidates, showcasing remarkable structure diversity that is largely unexplored. Our study provides a valuable resource for accelerating the discovery of novel iron-binding molecules and advancing our understanding of siderophores.

Genomic diversity and metabolic potential of marine Pseudomonadaceae

Recent changes in the taxonomy of the Pseudomonadaceae family have led to the delineation of three new genera (Atopomonas, Halopseudomonas and Stutzerimonas). However, the genus Pseudomonas remains the most densely populated and displays a broad genetic diversity. Pseudomonas are able to produce a wide variety of secondary metabolites which drives important ecological functions and have a great impact in sustaining their lifestyles. While soilborne Pseudomonas are constantly examined, we currently lack studies aiming to explore the genetic diversity and metabolic potential of marine Pseudomonas spp. In this study, 23 Pseudomonas strains were co-isolated with Vibrio strains from three marine microalgal cultures and rpoD-based phylogeny allowed their assignment to the Pseudomonas oleovorans group (Pseudomonas chengduensis, Pseudomonas toyotomiensis and one new species). We combined whole genome sequencing on three selected strains with an inventory of marine Pseudomonas genomes to assess their phylogenetic assignations and explore their metabolic potential. Our results revealed that most strains are incorrectly assigned at the species level and half of them do not belong to the genus Pseudomonas but instead to the genera Halopseudomonas or Stutzerimonas. We highlight the presence of 26 new species (Halopseudomonas (n = 5), Stutzerimonas (n = 7) and Pseudomonas (n = 14)) and describe one new species, Pseudomonas chaetocerotis sp. nov. (type strain 536^T = LMG 31766^T = DSM 111343^T). We used genome mining to identify numerous BGCs coding for the production of diverse known metabolites (i.e., osmoprotectants, photoprotectants, quorum sensing molecules, siderophores, cyclic lipopeptides) but also unknown metabolites (e.g., ARE, hybrid ARE-DAR, siderophores, orphan NRPS gene clusters) awaiting chemical characterization. Finally, this study underlines that marine environments host a huge diversity of Pseudomonadaceae that can drive the discovery of new secondary metabolites.

Pseudomonas putida and its close relatives: mixing and mastering the perfect tune for plants

Abstract

Plant growth–promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) are a group of microorganisms of utmost interest in agricultural biotechnology for their stimulatory and protective effects on plants. Among the various PGPR species, some Pseudomonas putida strains combine outstanding traits such as phytohormone synthesis, nutrient solubilization, adaptation to different stress conditions, and excellent root colonization ability. In this review, we summarize the state of the art and the most relevant findings related to P. putida and its close relatives as PGPR, and we have compiled a detailed list of P. putida sensu stricto, sensu lato, and close relative strains that have been studied for their plant growth–promoting characteristics. However, the mere in vitro analysis of these characteristics does not guarantee correct plant performance under in vivo or field conditions. Therefore, the importance of studying adhesion and survival in the rhizosphere, as well as responses to environmental factors, is emphasized. Although numerous strains of this species have shown good performance in field trials, their use in commercial products is still very limited. Thus, we also analyze the opportunities and challenges related to the formulation and application of bioproducts based on these bacteria.

Key points

•The mini-review updates the knowledge on Pseudomonas putida as a PGPR.

• Some rhizosphere strains are able to improve plant growth under stress conditions.

• The metabolic versatility of this species encourages the development of a bioproduct.

A comprehensive method to elucidate pyoverdines produced by fluorescent Pseudomonas spp. by UHPLC-HR-MS/MS

Microbial secondary metabolites represent a rich source for drug discovery, plant protective agents, and biotechnologically relevant compounds. Among them are siderophores, iron-chelating molecules, that show a great influence on bacterial community assembly and the potential to control pathogen invasions. One of such a siderophore is pyoverdine that is produced by fluorescent Pseudomonas members and consists of different peptide chains specific to each bacterial species. The identification and structural elucidation of such suites of siderophores remain widely underexplored as general high-throughput analytical protocols are missing. Therefore, a dedicated method was established allowing a rapid localization and structural elucidation of pyoverdines. Liquid bacterial culture samples were purified by an easy small-scale solid-phase extraction (SPE). Ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography high-resolution tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-HR-MS/MS) separated highly polar pyoverdines and their derivatives. All ion fragmentation (AIF) generated mass spectra containing the characteristic fragments of the biological precursor of pyoverdine, ferribactin. This led to the revelation of the mass of secreted pyoverdines. Targeted MS/MS experiments at multiple collision energies accomplished the full structure elucidation of the pyoverdine peptide chain. A mass calculator and a fragmentation predictor facilitated greatly the interpretation of MS/MS spectra by providing accurate masses for a straightforward comparison of measured and theoretical values. The method was successfully validated using four well-known pyoverdines with various peptide chains. Finally, the applicability was proven by the analysis of 13 unknown pyoverdines secreted by sampled bacterial cultures. Among these, 4 novel pyoverdine peptide chains were discovered and are herein reported for the first time.

Elucidation of crude siderophore extracts from supernatants of Pseudomonas sp. ZnCd2003 cultivated in nutrient broth supplemented with Zn, Cd, and Zn plus Cd

This research aimed to study siderophores secreted from Pseudomonas sp. PDMZnCd2003, a Zn/Cd tolerant bacterium. The effects of Zn and/or Cd stress were examined in nutrient broth to achieve the actual environmental conditions. Acid and alkali supernatants and liquid-liquid extraction with ethyl acetate and butanol were carried out to obtain crude extracts containing different amounts of the metals. The bacterial growth, UV-visible spectra of the supernatants and siderophore production indicated that the production of siderophores tended to be linked to primary metabolites. Pyocyanin was produced in all treatments, while pyoverdine was induced by stress from the metals, especially Cd. FT-IR spectra showed C=O groups and sulfur functional groups that were involved in binding with the metals. LC-MS revealed that pyocyanin, 1-hydroxy phenazine, pyoverdine, and pyochelin were present in the crude extracts. S K-edge XANES spectra showed that the main sulfur species in the extracts were the reduced forms of sulfide, thiol, and disulfide, and their oxidation states were affected by coordination with Zn and/or Cd. In addition, Zn K-edge EXAFS spectra and Cd K-edge EXAFS spectra presented Zn-O and Cd-O as coordination in the first shell, in case the extracts contained less metal. Although the mix O/S ligands had chelation bonding with Zn and Cd in the other extracts. For the role of S groups in pyochelin binding with the metals, this was the first report. The results of these experiments could be extended to Pseudomonas that respond to metal contaminated environments.

Hierarchical routing in carbon metabolism favors iron-scavenging strategy in iron-deficient soil Pseudomonas species

Siderophore secretion confers competitive advantage to pathogenic and beneficial bacteria in various nutritional environments, including human infections and rhizosphere microbiome. The siderophore biosynthesis must be sustained during a compromised carbon metabolism in Fe-deficient cells. Here we demonstrate that Fe-deficient Pseudomonas species overcome this paradox by coupling selectivity in carbon utilization with a hierarchy in metabolic pathways to favor carbon and energy fluxes for siderophore biosynthesis. A reprogrammed metabolism is predicted from genomics-based data obtained with several marine and soil bacterial systems in response to Fe deficiency, but metabolomics evidence is lacking. The present study offers an important roadmap for investigating the underlying metabolic connections between Fe or other metal nutrient availability and carbon utilization.

High-affinity iron (Fe) scavenging compounds, or siderophores, are widely employed by soil bacteria to survive scarcity in bioavailable Fe. Siderophore biosynthesis relies on cellular carbon metabolism, despite reported decrease in both carbon uptake and Fe-containing metabolic proteins in Fe-deficient cells. Given this paradox, the metabolic network required to sustain the Fe-scavenging strategy is poorly understood. Here, through multiple ¹³C-metabolomics experiments with Fe-replete and Fe-limited cells, we uncover how soil Pseudomonas species reprogram their metabolic pathways to prioritize siderophore biosynthesis. Across the three species investigated (Pseudomonas putida KT2440, Pseudomonas protegens Pf-5, and Pseudomonas putida S12), siderophore secretion is higher during growth on gluconeogenic substrates than during growth on glycolytic substrates. In response to Fe limitation, we capture decreased flux toward the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle during the metabolism of glycolytic substrates but, due to carbon recycling to the TCA cycle via enhanced anaplerosis, the metabolism of gluconeogenic substrates results in an increase in both siderophore secretion (up to threefold) and Fe extraction (up to sixfold) from soil minerals. During simultaneous feeding on the different substrate types, Fe deficiency triggers a hierarchy in substrate utilization, which is facilitated by changes in protein abundances for substrate uptake and initial catabolism. Rerouted metabolism further promotes favorable fluxes in the TCA cycle and the gluconeogenesis–anaplerosis nodes, despite decrease in several proteins in these pathways, to meet carbon and energy demands for siderophore precursors in accordance with increased proteins for siderophore biosynthesis. Hierarchical carbon metabolism thus serves as a critical survival strategy during the metal nutrient deficiency.

Complete genome sequence of a marine-derived bacterium Pseudomonas sp. SXM-1 and characterization of its siderophore through antiSMASH analysis and with mass spectroscopic method

Pseudomonas sp. SXM-1, isolated from coastal sea water of Xiamen Bay, could produce extracellular pyoverdine. Here, we present the complete genome of Pseudomonas sp. SXM-1, which will facilitate the genome mining of the pyoverdine synthetase coding gene cluster. The sequenced genome, a circular chromosome, is 7,226,716 bp in length, which contains 60.78% of GC bases, 6549 proteins, 67 tRNAs, and 16 rRNA encoding genes. The structure of pyoverdine produced by Pseudomonas sp. SXM-1 was predicted by using the antiSMASH 5.1.2 tool and further characterized with mass spectroscopic method.

No antibiotic and toxic metabolites produced by the biocontrol agent Pseudomonas putida strain B2017

Pseudomonas putida and closely-related species such as Pseudomonas fluorescens and Pseudomonas brassicacearum have been reported as potential biocontrol agents and plant growth-promoters. Recently, we have described the biocontrol activity of P. putida B2017 against several phytopathogens of agricultural relevance. In this study, its ability to produce potential antibiotic / toxic metabolites was assessed by functional, chromatography-mass spectrometry and genomic analysis. Our results show that B2017 is not able to synthesize surfactants and common antibiotics produced by Pseudomonas spp., i.e. pyrrolnitrin, 2,4-diacetylphloroglucinol, pyoluteorin and pyocyanin, but it produces pyoverdine, a siderophore which is involved in its biocontrol activity. The non-production of other metabolites, such as cyanide, safracin, promysalin and lipopeptides between others, is also discussed. Our data suggest that the mode of action of B2017 is not mainly due to the production of antimicrobial / toxic metabolites. Moreover, these features make P. putida B2017 a promising biocontrol microorganism for plant protection without side effects on environment, non-target organisms and human health.

Chemical characterization and ligand behaviour of Pseudomonas veronii 2E siderophores

Siderophores are low-molecular weight ligands secreted by bacteria as a survival strategy in Fe(III)-lacking environments. They bind not only Fe(III), but Co(II), Zn(II), Mn(II), Ni(II), Ga(III) as a detoxification alternative. The synthesis, purification and characterization of siderophores produced by Pseudomonas veronii 2E were evaluated to be applied in future environmental technologies. Optimal production was obtained in Fe(III)-free M9-succinate at 25 °C, 40 h and pH 6.9. Siderophores were chemically characterized as hydroxamate and catechol mixed-type. Spectroscopic analysis indicated their belonging to the pyoverdine family, behaving as ligand to Cd(II), Zn(II), Cu(II), Ni(II) and Cr(III), which promoted siderophoregenesis during growth. Siderophore-Cd(II) complexation was studied by electrochemical monitored titration revealing one family of moderate-strength binding sites. Mass spectral analysis evidenced the secretion of a variety of molecules (molecular mass ca.1200 u). Non pathogenic Pseudomonas veronii 2E siderophores represent a safe alternative for the concrete application of environmental technologies and clinical procedures.

Iron Release from the Siderophore Pyoverdine in Pseudomonas aeruginosa Involves Three New Actors: FpvC, FpvG, and FpvH

Siderophores are iron chelators produced by bacteria to access iron, an essential nutriment. Pyoverdine (PVDI), the major siderophore produced by Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1, consists of a fluorescent chromophore linked to an octapeptide. The ferric form of PVDI is transported from the extracellular environment into the periplasm by the outer membrane transporter, FpvA. Iron is then released from the siderophore in the periplasm by a mechanism that does not involve chemical modification of the chelator but an iron reduction step. Here, we followed the kinetics of iron release from PVDI, in vitro and in living cells, by monitoring its fluorescence (as apo PVDI is fluorescent, whereas PVDI-Fe(III) is not). Deletion of the inner membrane proteins fpvG (PA2403) and fpvH (PA2404) affected ⁵⁵Fe uptake via PVDI and completely abolished PVDI-Fe dissociation, indicating that these two proteins are involved in iron acquisition via this siderophore. PVDI-Fe dissociation studies, using an in vitro assay, showed that iron release from this siderophore requires the presence of an iron reducer (DTT) and an iron chelator (ferrozine). In this assay, DTT could be replaced by the inner membrane protein, FpvG, and ferrozine by the periplasmic protein, FpvC, suggesting that FpvG acts as a reductase and FpvC as an Fe²⁺ chelator in the process of PVDI-Fe dissociation in the periplasm of P. aeruginosa cells. This mechanism of iron release from PVDI is atypical among Gram-negative bacteria but seems to be conserved among Pseudomonads.

Iron Uptake Analysis in a Set of Clinical Isolates of Pseudomonas putida

Pseudomonas putida strains are frequent inhabitants of soil and aquatic niches and they are occasionally isolated from hospital environments. As the available iron sources in human tissues, edaphic, and aquatic niches are different, we have analyzed iron-uptake related genes in different P. putida strains that were isolated from all these environments. We found that these isolates can be grouped into different clades according to the genetics of siderophore biosynthesis and recycling. The pyoverdine locus of the six P. putida clinical isolates that have so far been completely sequenced, are not closely related; three strains (P. putida HB13667, HB3267, and NBRC14164T) are grouped in Clade I and the other three in Clade II, suggesting possible different origins and evolution. In one clinical strain, P. putida HB4184, the production of siderophores is induced under high osmolarity conditions. The pyoverdine locus in this strain is closely related to that of strain P. putida HB001 which was isolated from sandy shore soil of the Yellow Sea in Korean marine sand, suggesting their possible origin, and evolution. The acquisition of two unique TonB-dependent transporters for xenosiderophore acquisition, similar to those existing in the opportunistic pathogen P. aeruginosa PAO, is an interesting adaptation trait of the clinical strain P. putida H8234 that may confer adaptive advantages under low iron availability conditions.

Specific Gene Loci of Clinical Pseudomonas putida Isolates

Pseudomonas putida are ubiquitous inhabitants of soils and clinical isolates of this species have been seldom described. Clinical isolates show significant variability in their ability to cause damage to hosts because some of them are able to modulate the host’s immune response. In the current study, comparisons between the genomes of different clinical and environmental strains of P. putida were done to identify genetic clusters shared by clinical isolates that are not present in environmental isolates. We show that in clinical strains specific genes are mostly present on transposons, and that this set of genes exhibit high identity with genes found in pathogens and opportunistic pathogens. The set of genes prevalent in P. putida clinical isolates, and absent in environmental isolates, are related with survival under oxidative stress conditions, resistance against biocides, amino acid metabolism and toxin/antitoxin (TA) systems. This set of functions have influence in colonization and survival within human tissues, since they avoid host immune response or enhance stress resistance. An in depth bioinformatic analysis was also carried out to identify genetic clusters that are exclusive to each of the clinical isolates and that correlate with phenotypical differences between them, a secretion system type III-like was found in one of these clinical strains, a determinant of pathogenicity in Gram-negative bacteria.

Characterization of microbial siderophores by mass spectrometry

Siderophores play important roles in microbial iron piracy, and are applied as infectious disease biomarkers and novel pharmaceutical drugs. Inductively coupled plasma and molecular mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) combined with high resolution separations allow characterization of siderophores in complex samples taking advantages of mass defect data filtering, tandem mass spectrometry, and iron-containing compound quantitation. The enrichment approaches used in siderophore analysis and current ICP-MS technologies are reviewed. The recent tools for fast dereplication of secondary metabolites and their databases are reported. This review on siderophores is concluded with their recent medical, biochemical, geochemical, and agricultural applications in mass spectrometry context.

Characterization of the iron-binding properties of pyoverdine using electron-capture dissociation-tandem mass spectrometry

Pyoverdines (PVD) are a group of siderophores produced by fluorescent Pseudomonads. Identification of PVD variants mostly relies on liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) using collision-induced dissociation (CID). Here, both CID and the novel dissociation technique electron-capture dissociation (ECD) were applied to characterize PVD succinamide and its Fe(III)-chelated complex. The results clearly showed that ECD produced diagnostic side chain fragmentation of the PVD peptide chain and preserved the labile Fe(III) binding to the chromophore in contrast to CID. The ECD technique is therefore expected to support the understanding of strain-specific Fe(III) transport processes of PVDs.

Draft genome sequence analysis of a Pseudomonas putida W15Oct28 strain with antagonistic activity to Gram-positive and Pseudomonas sp. pathogens

Pseudomonas putida is a member of the fluorescent pseudomonads known to produce the yellow-green fluorescent pyoverdine siderophore. P. putida W15Oct28, isolated from a stream in Brussels, was found to produce compound(s) with antimicrobial activity against the opportunistic pathogens Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and the plant pathogen Pseudomonas syringae, an unusual characteristic for P. putida. The active compound production only occurred in media with low iron content and without organic nitrogen sources. Transposon mutants which lost their antimicrobial activity had the majority of insertions in genes involved in the biosynthesis of pyoverdine, although purified pyoverdine was not responsible for the antagonism. Separation of compounds present in culture supernatants revealed the presence of two fractions containing highly hydrophobic molecules active against P. aeruginosa. Analysis of the draft genome confirmed the presence of putisolvin biosynthesis genes and the corresponding lipopeptides were found to contribute to the antimicrobial activity. One cluster of ten genes was detected, comprising a NAD-dependent epimerase, an acetylornithine aminotransferase, an acyl CoA dehydrogenase, a short chain dehydrogenase, a fatty acid desaturase and three genes for a RND efflux pump. P. putida W15Oct28 genome also contains 56 genes encoding TonB-dependent receptors, conferring a high capacity to utilize pyoverdines from other pseudomonads. One unique feature of W15Oct28 is also the presence of different secretion systems including a full set of genes for type IV secretion, and several genes for type VI secretion and their VgrG effectors.