Antiviral activity of 1,2,4-triazole derivatives (microreview)

A Review on Chemistry and Methods of Synthesis of 1,2,4-Triazole Derivatives

This review provides a comprehensive overview of research on 1,2,4-triazoles conducted over the last fifteen years. 1,2,4-Triazoles are highly significant in the pharmaceutical industry, with numerous compounds from this class used clinically as antifungal, antiviral, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and antitubercular agents. Beyond their pharmaceutical relevance, this review also explores their role in material science and agriculture. In material science, 1,2,4-triazoles are gaining prominence, particularly in the development of energetic materials (EMs), due to their exceptional properties such as thermal stability, coordination ability, and performance comparable to well-known explosives. Their applications extend to polymers, corrosion inhibitors, and metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), and they play a significant role in the development of functional materials for sensors, catalysis, and energy storage. Additionally, the review addresses general aspects and synthetic methodologies for the functionalization and construction of the 1,2,4-triazole ring. Synthetic methods discussed include metalation synthesis, cyclization of hydrazine derivatives, multicomponent reactions, cyclization of amides and amidines, and microwave-assisted synthesis. Given the significance of the triazole scaffold, its synthesis has garnered considerable attention due to its wide-ranging applications across various industrial sectors.

Anti-apoptotic, anti-inflammatory, and anti-melanogenic effects of the ethanol extract of Picrasma quassioides (D. Don) Benn

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Picrasma quassioides (D. Don) Benn is a vascular plant belonging to the genus Picrasma of Simaroubaceae family and grows in Korea, China, India, Taiwan, and Japan. Picrasma quassioides extract has been reported to have anti-inflammatory, anti-bacterial, and anti-cancer properties. Moreover, this plant has been also traditionally used to alleviate symptoms of eczema, atopic dermatitis, psoriasis, scabies, and boils in skin.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The Pq-EE has been reported in Chinese pharmacopoeia for its pharmacological effects on skin. However, the detailed mechanism on alleviating skin conditions is not understood. Hence, we investigated the skin improvement potential of Pq-EE against skin damage.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We used the human keratinocyte cell line (HaCaT) and mouse melanoma cell line (B16F10) to study the effects of Pq-EE on the epidermis. Additionally, in vitro antioxidant assays were performed using a solution that included either metal ions or free radicals.

RESULTS

In colorimetric antioxidant assays, Pq-EE inhibited free radicals in a dose-dependent manner. The Pq-EE did not affect cell viability and promoted cell survival under UVB exposure conditions in the MTT assay. The Pq-EE downregulated the mRNA levels of apoptotic factors. Moreover, MMP1 and inflammatory cytokine iNOS mRNA levels decreased with Pq-EE treatment. With regard to protein levels, caspases and cleaved caspases were more powerfully inhibited by Pq-EE than UVB-irritated conditions. p53 and Bax also decreased with Pq-EE treatment. The melanin contents and secretion were decreased at nontoxic concentrations of Pq-EE. The pigmentation pathway genes also were inhibited by treatment with Pq-EE.

CONCLUSIONS

In summary, we suggest the cell protective potential of Pq-EE against UVB and ROS, indicating its use in UV-protective cosmeceutical materials.

Design and Synthesis of Novel Phthalide Derivatives containing 1,3,4-Oxadiazole/1,2,4-Triazole Units as Potential Antifungal Agents

Four series of novel 1,3,4-oxadiazole/1,2,4-triazole hybrids of phthalide derivatives were designed and synthesized to search for novel potential antifungal agents. Preliminary antifungal activity assay results showed that compounds 4 a, 4 b, 4 m, 5 b, 5 f, 5 h, and 7 h exhibited moderate to excellent inhibitory activity against some phytopathogenic fungi. Among them, compound 5 b displayed the most outstanding antifungal effects against V. mali and S. sclerotiorum, with the EC50 mean of 3.96 μg/mL and 5.60 μg/mL, respectively, which was superior to those of commercial fungicides hymexazol and chlorothalonil. Furthermore, compound 5 b could completely suppress the spore germination of V. mali at a concentration of 10 μg/mL. Finally, molecular docking revealed that the potential target for the antifungal activity of compound 5 b was succinate dehydrogenase (SDH). This research provides novel candidate compounds for the prevention of phytopathogenic fungi.

Exploration of nonlinear optical properties of 4-methyl-4H-1,2,4-triazol-3-yl)thio)-N-phenylpropanamide based derivatives: experimental and DFT approach

Triazoles, nitrogen-containing heterocycles, have gained attention for their applications in medicinal chemistry, drug discovery, agrochemicals, and material sciences. In the current study, we synthesized novel derivatives of N-substituted 2-((5-(3-bromophenyl)-4-methyl-4H-1,2,4-triazol-3-yl)thio)-N-phenylpropanamide and conducted a comprehensive investigation using density functional theory (DFT). These novel structural hybrids of 1,2,4-triazole were synthesized through the multi-step chemical modifications of 3-bromobenzoic acid (1). Initially, compound 1 was converted into its methyl-3-bromobenzoate (2) which was then transformed into 3-bromobenzohydrazide (3). The final step involved the cyclization of compound 3, producing its 1,2,4-triazole derivative (4). This intermediate was then coupled with different electrophiles, resulting in the formation of the final derivatives (7a-7c). Additionally, the characterization of these triazole-based compounds (7a, 7b, and 7c) were carried out using techniques such as IR, HNMR, and UV-visible spectroscopy to understand their structural and spectroscopic properties. The DFT study utilized M06/6-311G(d,p) functional to investigate geometrical parameters, HOMO-LUMO energies, natural bond orbital analyses, transition density matrix (TDM), density of states, and nonlinear optical (NLO) properties. The FMO analysis revealed that compound 7c exhibited the lowest band gap value (4.618 eV). Notably, compound 7c exhibited significant linear polarizability (4.195 >  × 10-23) and first and second hyperpolarizabilities (6.317 >  × 10-30, 4.314 × 10-35), signifying its potential for nonlinear optical applications. These NLO characteristics imply that each of our compounds, especially 7c, plays a crucial part in fabricating materials showing promising NLO properties for optoelectronic applications.

A Literature Review Focusing on the Antiviral Activity of [1,2,4] and [1,2,3]-triazoles

Out of a variety of heterocycles, triazole scaffolds have been shown to play a significant part in a wide array of biological functions. Many drug compounds containing a triazole moiety with important antimicrobial, anticancer and antidepressant properties have been commercialized. In addition, the triazole scaffold exhibits remarkable antiviral activity either incorporated into nucleoside analogs or non-nucleosides. Many synthetic techniques have been produced by scientists around the world as a result of their wide-ranging biological function. In this review, we have tried to summarize new synthetic methods produced by diverse research groups as well as provide a comprehensive description of the function of [1,2,4] and [1,2,3]-triazole derivatives as antiviral agents. Antiviral triazole compounds have been shown to target a wide variety of molecular proteins. In addition, several strains of viruses, including the human immunodeficiency virus, SARS virus, hepatitis B and C viruses, influenza virus, Hantavirus, and herpes virus, were discovered to be susceptible to triazole derivatives. This review article covered the reports for antiviral activity of both 1,2,3- and 1,2,4-triazole moieties up to 2022.

The Synthesis of Triazolium Salts as Antifungal Agents: A Biological and In Silico Evaluation

The control of fungal pathogens is increasingly difficult due to the limited number of effective drugs available for antifungal therapy. In addition, both humans and fungi are eukaryotic organisms; antifungal drugs may have significant toxicity due to the inhibition of related human targets. Furthermore, another problem is increased incidents of fungal resistance to azoles, such as fluconazole, ketoconazole, voriconazole, etc. Thus, the interest in developing new azoles with an extended spectrum of activity still attracts the interest of the scientific community. Herein, we report the synthesis of a series of triazolium salts, an evaluation of their antifungal activity, and docking studies. Ketoconazole and bifonazole were used as reference drugs. All compounds showed good antifungal activity with MIC/MFC in the range of 0.0003 to 0.2/0.0006–0.4 mg/mL. Compound 19 exhibited the best activity among all tested with MIC/MFC in the range of 0.009 to 0.037 mg/mL and 0.0125–0.05 mg/mL, respectively. All compounds appeared to be more potent than both reference drugs. The docking studies are in accordance with experimental results.

Expanding the chemical space of 3(5)-functionalized 1,2,4-triazoles

An efficient approach to the gram-scale synthesis of 3(5)-substituted, 1,3- and 1,5-disubstituted 1,2,4-triazole-derived building blocks is described. The key synthetic precursors - 1,2,4-triazole-3(5)-carboxylates (20 examples, 35-89% yield) were prepared from readily available acyl hydrazides and ethyl 2-ethoxy-2-iminoacetate hydrochloride. Further transformations were performed following the convergent synthetic strategy and allowed the preparation of 1,3- and 1,5-disubstituted 1,2,4-triazole-derived esters (16 examples, 25-75% yield), 3(5)-substituted, 1,3- and 1,5-disubstituted carboxylate salts (18 examples, 78-93% yield), amides (5 examples, 82-93% yield), nitriles (5 examples, 30-85% yield), hydrazides (6 examples, 84-89% yield), and hydroxamic acids (3 examples, 73-78% yield). Considering wide applications of the 1,2,4-triazole motif in medicinal chemistry, these compounds are valuable building blocks for lead-oriented synthesis; they have also great potential for coordination chemistry.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10593-022-03064-z.