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Blazer VS, Walsh HL, Sperry AJ, Raines B, Willacker JJ, Eagles-Smith CA. A multi-level assessment of biological effects associated with mercury concentrations in smallmouth bass, Micropterus dolomieu. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2023; 329:121688. [PMID: 37088253 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2023.121688] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2023] [Revised: 04/11/2023] [Accepted: 04/20/2023] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Total mercury (THg) was measured in muscle (fillet) and liver tissue of adult smallmouth bass Micropterus dolomieu collected at multiple sites in the Potomac and Susquehanna River drainages within the Chesapeake Bay watershed. Smallmouth bass in these drainages have experienced episodic mortality events, a high prevalence of skin lesions and reproductive endocrine disruption (intersex or testicular oocytes and plasma vitellogenin in males). A multi-level assessment of general and reproductive health including indicators at the organismal, organ, cellular and molecular levels was conducted on adult smallmouth bass during the spring (prespawn) season. Concentrations of THg were correlated with increased visible abnormalities, increased macrophage aggregates and tissue parasite burdens. In male bass positive correlations of THg were observed with plasma vitellogenin and hepatic transcript abundance of estrogen receptor β1 and androgen receptor α, while there was a negative association with estrogen receptors α and β2 and androgen receptors β. In female bass there was a negative correlation between THg and plasma vitellogenin as well as hepatic transcript abundance of vitellogenin, choriogenin, estrogen receptor β2 and 17β hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase. Associations of THg concentrations with various biological indicators suggest mercury may be an important environmental stressor contributing to the observed adverse effects in smallmouth bass populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vicki S Blazer
- U.S. Geological Survey, Eastern Ecological Science Center, Leetown Research Laboratory, 11649 Leetown Road, Kearneysville, WV, 25430, USA.
| | - Heather L Walsh
- U.S. Geological Survey, Eastern Ecological Science Center, Leetown Research Laboratory, 11649 Leetown Road, Kearneysville, WV, 25430, USA
| | - Adam J Sperry
- U.S. Geological Survey, Eastern Ecological Science Center, Leetown Research Laboratory, 11649 Leetown Road, Kearneysville, WV, 25430, USA
| | - Brenna Raines
- U.S. Geological Survey, Eastern Ecological Science Center, Leetown Research Laboratory, 11649 Leetown Road, Kearneysville, WV, 25430, USA
| | - James J Willacker
- U.S. Geological Survey, Forest and Rangeland Ecosystem Science Center, 3200 SW Jefferson Way, Corvallis, OR, 97331, USA
| | - Collin A Eagles-Smith
- U.S. Geological Survey, Forest and Rangeland Ecosystem Science Center, 3200 SW Jefferson Way, Corvallis, OR, 97331, USA
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2
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Smith RJ, Kollus KM, Propper CR. Environmentally relevant arsenic exposure affects morphological and molecular endpoints associated with reproduction in the Western mosquitofish, Gambusia affinis. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 830:154448. [PMID: 35307416 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.154448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2021] [Revised: 02/20/2022] [Accepted: 03/06/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Arsenic (As) exposure, even at low environmentally relevant levels, may cause detrimental health outcomes through developmental toxicity and by acting as an endocrine disrupting compound (EDC). Although several studies indicate that wildlife bioaccumulate As, few evaluate the health impact on fish species in their natural environment. In the U.S., As has a drinking water regulatory limit of 10 μg/L. In many parts of Arizona, surface water and groundwater have naturally elevated levels of As from geologic deposits and contamination is exacerbated by anthropogenic activity. In aquatic environments, the Western mosquitofish, Gambusia affinis, is a good bioindicator for EDC exposure because of the distinct androgen-related development of an intromittent organ, the gonapodium, in males. We evaluated morphological and reproductive outcomes in mosquitofish exposed to As. In a laboratory experiment, juvenile male mosquitofish were exposed to sodium arsenite (0 μg/L, 0.75 μg/L, 7.50 μg/L, and 75 μg/L) for 30 days, and in a field study, populations of adult male mosquitofish were collected in Arizona waterways with As levels above and below the World Health Organization's regulatory limit. In both studies, higher As exposure was significantly associated with altered hepatosomatic indices, altered fish morphology, shortened gonopodia, and lower gonopodia-somatic indices. In the field experiment, populations from surface water with higher As concentrations exhibited lower condition factors, lower gonadal-somatic indices, distinct gonopodia shapes, and altered estrogen receptor alpha and vitellogenin gene expression; androgen receptor expression was unchanged. Together, laboratory and field results suggest that As exposure at environmentally-relevant levels affects general growth and reproductive development in mosquitofish. Observed effects may further influence individual health, mobility, or reproductive function, and because G. affinis is a species known to tolerate and adapt to a wide range of environments, it serves as a local bioindicator species as well as a model organism for parallel field and laboratory studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Riley J Smith
- Department of Biological Sciences, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ 86011, USA
| | - Kalai M Kollus
- Department of Biological Sciences, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ 86011, USA
| | - Catherine R Propper
- Department of Biological Sciences, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ 86011, USA.
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3
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Yalçin SS, Erdal İ, Çetinkaya S, Oğuz B. Urinary levels of phthalate esters and heavy metals in adolescents with thyroid colloid cysts. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH RESEARCH 2022; 32:1359-1372. [PMID: 33555204 DOI: 10.1080/09603123.2021.1883554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2020] [Accepted: 01/27/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
We aimed to evaluate 14 urinary phthalate metabolites and 4 toxic metals in adolescents having thyroid colloid cyst (TCC) and compare with age and sex-matched others without TCC. Phthalate metabolites were analysed with UPLC-MS/MS and heavy metals with ICP-MS. TCC ratios in tertile subgroups of pollutants were compared with multiple logistic regression analysis after adjusting for age, sex, z-scores for body mass index and urinary creatinine values. Adolescents having the highest tertile of mono (2-ethylhexyl) phthalic acid and mercury had increased odds and those with the highest tertiles of monocarboxy-isononyl phthalate, mono (3-carboxypropyl) phthalate, monoisobutyl phthalate had lower odds for TCC than counterparts. The odds of TCC were lower for those in the second and the third tertiles. No differences in TCC ratios were detected with other pollutants. Given phthalate esters' and toxic metals' specific interactions on TCC, further studies were necessary to assess the influence of chemicals on TCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Songül Yalçin
- Unit of Social Pediatrics, Department of Pediatrics, Faculty of Medicine, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey
| | - İzzet Erdal
- Unit of Social Pediatrics, Department of Pediatrics, Faculty of Medicine, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Semra Çetinkaya
- TC Health Sciences University, Dr Sami Ulus Obstetrics and Gynecology, Children's Health and Disease, Health Implementation and Research Center, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Berna Oğuz
- Department of Radiology, Faculty of Medicine, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey
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4
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Zhang Q, Hu M, Wu H, Niu Q, Lu X, He J, Huang F. Plasma polybrominated diphenyl ethers, urinary heavy metals and the risk of thyroid cancer: A case-control study in China. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2021; 269:116162. [PMID: 33303234 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2020.116162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2020] [Revised: 10/31/2020] [Accepted: 11/24/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The incidence of thyroid cancer (TC) has increased rapidly worldwide in recent years. Exposure to endocrine disruptors can affect thyroid hormones and is probably carcinogenic to humans. The effects of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), some heavy metals (Cd, Pb, As and Hg) on risk of TC have been rarely reported. Hence, we aimed to examine the associations of TC risk with exposure to PBDEs and four heavy metals. This case-control study involved 308 TC cases and 308 age- and sex-matched controls. Plasma PBDEs concentrations were determined by gas chromatograph-mass spectrometry. Concentrations of heavy metals concentrations in urine specimens were detected by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry or inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry. Conditional logistic regression models were used to explore associations of PBDEs and 4 heavy metals exposures with TC risk. A joint-effect interaction term was inserted into the logistic regression models to assess the multiplicative interaction effects of PBDEs-heavy metals on TC risk. Some PBDE congeners (BDE-028, -047, -099, -183, -209) were positively correlated with TC risk. As and Hg were also associated with the increased TC risk. Compared with low exposure levels, participants with high exposure levels of As and Hg were 5.35 and 2.98 times more likely to have TC, respectively. Co-exposure to BDE-209 and Pb had a negative interaction effect on TC risk. Some PBDE congeners (e.g. BDE-028, -047, -209) and Hg had a significant positive interaction effect on the risk of TC. The joint exposure of BDE-183 and Hg showed a negative interaction effect on TC risk, but the corresponding OR value was still statistically significant. Exposure to PBDEs, As and Hg may be associated with TC development. Joint exposure to PBDEs and Pb or Hg has interaction effects on TC risk. Further prospective research with large sample is required to confirm these findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qian Zhang
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, 230032, China; Department of Epidemiology and Health Statistics, School of Public Health, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian, 350122, China
| | - Mingjun Hu
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, 230032, China
| | - Huabing Wu
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, 230032, China
| | - Qingshan Niu
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, 230032, China
| | - Xuelei Lu
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, 230032, China
| | - Jialiu He
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, 230032, China
| | - Fen Huang
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, 230032, China; Laboratory for Environmental Toxicology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, 230032, China.
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Varea R, Piovano S, Ferreira M. Knowledge gaps in ecotoxicology studies of marine environments in Pacific Island Countries and Territories - A systematic review. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2020; 156:111264. [PMID: 32510405 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2019] [Revised: 05/06/2020] [Accepted: 05/09/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The Pacific Island Countries and Territories (PICTs) are heavily dependent on the marine resources for food security, employment, government revenue and economic development, hence the concern about the potential exposure of these resources to pollutants. The main goal of this review was to identify ecotoxicology studies published that were done in PICTs. Four major gaps were identified: i) a quantitative gap, with low number of studies published on the PICTs; ii) a geographic gap, where ecotoxicology studies have unevenly covered the different PICTs; iii) a temporal gap, as no biological effect monitoring study has so far been published for the PICTs; and, iv) a pollutants gap, as all of the PICTs studies focused mainly on environmental monitoring studying on average two types of pollutants (heavy metals and pesticides) per PICT only. We suggest, therefore, the potential risk to the marine environment to be estimated by assessing the fate of pollutants via chemical and biological effect monitoring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rufino Varea
- School of Marine Studies, Faculty of Science Technology and Environment, The University of the South Pacific, Laucala Bay Road, Suva, Fiji
| | - Susanna Piovano
- School of Marine Studies, Faculty of Science Technology and Environment, The University of the South Pacific, Laucala Bay Road, Suva, Fiji
| | - Marta Ferreira
- School of Marine Studies, Faculty of Science Technology and Environment, The University of the South Pacific, Laucala Bay Road, Suva, Fiji; CIIMAR/CIMAR-Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões, Av. General Norton de Matos s/n, 4450-208 Matosinhos, Portugal.
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Bjørklund G, Chirumbolo S, Dadar M, Pivina L, Lindh U, Butnariu M, Aaseth J. Mercury exposure and its effects on fertility and pregnancy outcome. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol 2019; 125:317-327. [PMID: 31136080 DOI: 10.1111/bcpt.13264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2019] [Accepted: 05/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Mercury (Hg), a highly toxic environmental pollutant, shows harmfulness which still represents a big concern for human health, including hazards to fertility and pregnancy outcome. Research has shown that Hg could induce impairments in the reproductive function, cellular deformation of the Leydig cells and the seminiferous tubules, and testicular degeneration as well as abnormal menstrual cycles. Some studies investigated spontaneous abortion and complicated fertility outcome due to occupational Hg exposure. Moreover, there is a relation between inhaled Hg vapour and reproductive outcome. This MiniReview evaluates the hypothesis that exposure to Hg may increase the risk of reduced fertility, spontaneous abortion and congenital deficits or abnormalities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geir Bjørklund
- Council for Nutritional and Environmental Medicine (CONEM), Mo i Rana, Norway
| | - Salvatore Chirumbolo
- Department of Neurosciences, Biomedicine and Movement Sciences, University of Verona, Verona, Italy.,CONEM Scientific Secretary, Verona, Italy
| | - Maryam Dadar
- Razi Vaccine and Serum Research Institute, Agricultural Research, Education and Extension Organization (AREEO), Karaj, Iran
| | - Lyudmila Pivina
- Semey Medical University, Semey, Kazakhstan.,CONEM Kazakhstan Environmental Health and Safety Research Group, Semey Medical University, Semey, Kazakhstan
| | - Ulf Lindh
- Biology Education Centre, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Monica Butnariu
- Banat's University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine "King Michael I of Romania" from Timisoara, Timisoara, Romania.,CONEM Romania Biotechnology and Environmental Sciences Group, Banat's University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine "King Michael I of Romania" from Timisoara, Timisoara, Romania
| | - Jan Aaseth
- Research Department, Innlandet Hospital Trust, Brumunddal, Norway.,Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences, Elverum, Norway
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Shi Q, Sun N, Kou H, Wang H, Zhao H. Chronic effects of mercury on Bufo gargarizans larvae: Thyroid disruption, liver damage, oxidative stress and lipid metabolism disorder. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2018; 164:500-509. [PMID: 30145490 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2018.08.058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2018] [Revised: 08/08/2018] [Accepted: 08/17/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Mercury is severely detrimental to organisms and is ubiquitous in both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. In the present study, we examined the effects of chronic mercury (Hg) exposure on metamorphosis, body size, thyroid microstructures, liver microstructural and ultrastructural features, and transcript levels of genes associated with lipid metabolism, oxidative stress and thyroid hormones signaling pathways of Chinese toad (Bufo gargarizans) tadpoles. Tadpoles were exposed to mercury concentrations at 0, 6, 12, 18, 24 and 30 µg/L from Gosner stage 26-42 of metamorphic climax. The present results showed that high dose mercury (24 and 30 µg/L) decelerated metamorphosis rate and inhibited body size of B. gargarizans larvae. Histological examinations have clearly exhibited that high mercury concentrations caused thyroid gland and liver damages. Moreover, degeneration and disintegration of hepatocytes, mitochondrial vacuolation, and endoplasmic reticulum breakdown were visible in the ultrastructure of liver after high dose mercury treatment. Furthermore, the larvae exposed to high dose mercury demonstrated a significant decrease in type II iodothyronine deiodinase (Dio2) and thyroid hormone receptor α and β (TRα and TRβ) mRNA levels. Transcript level of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and heat shock protein (HSP) were significantly up regulated in larvae exposed to high dose mercury, while transcript level of phospholipid hydroperoxide glutathione peroxidase (PHGPx) was significantly down regulated. Moreover, exposure to high dose mercury significantly down regulated mRNA expression of carnitine palmitoyltransferase (CPT), sterol carrier protein (SCP), acyl-CoA oxidase (ACOX) and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α (PPAPα), but significantly up regulated mRNA expression of fatty acid elongase (FAE), fatty acid synthetase (FAS) and Acetyl CoA Carboxylase (ACC). Therefore, we conclude that high dose mercury induced thyroid function disruption, liver oxidative stress and lipid metabolism disorder by damaging thyroid and liver cell structures and altering the expression levels of relevant genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiang Shi
- College of Life Sciences, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710119 China
| | - Nailiang Sun
- College of Life Sciences, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710119 China
| | - Honghong Kou
- College of Life Sciences, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710119 China
| | - Hongyuan Wang
- College of Life Sciences, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710119 China
| | - Hongfeng Zhao
- College of Life Sciences, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710119 China.
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Sun Y, Li Y, Liu Z, Chen Q. Environmentally relevant concentrations of mercury exposure alter thyroid hormone levels and gene expression in the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis of zebrafish larvae. FISH PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY 2018; 44:1175-1183. [PMID: 29691693 DOI: 10.1007/s10695-018-0504-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2018] [Accepted: 04/17/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Mercury (Hg) is one of the most toxic heavy metals that can cause severe damage to fish. Studies have demonstrated that Hg has a specific affinity for the endocrine system, but little is known about the effects of Hg on thyroid endocrine system in fish. In this study, zebrafish embryos were exposed to environmentally relevant concentrations of 1, 4, and 16 μg/L Hg2+ (added as HgCl2) from 2 h post-fertilization (hpf) to 168 hpf. Thyroid hormone (TH) levels and mRNA expression levels of genes involved in the hypothalamus-pituitary-thyroid (HPT) axis were determined. The results showed that exposure to 16 μg/L Hg2+ increased the whole-body thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) levels. The transcription levels of corticotrophin releasing hormone (crh) and thyroid stimulating hormone (tshβ) were up-regulated by Hg2+ exposure. Analysis of the mRNA levels of genes related to thyroid development (hhex, nkx2.1, and pax8) and THs synthesis (nis and tg) revealed that exposure to higher Hg2+ concentrations markedly up-regulated hhex, nkx2.1, nis, and tg expression, while had no significant effect on the transcripts of pax8. For the transcription of two types of deiodinases (deio1 and deio2), deio1 showed no significant changes in all the treatments, whereas deio2 was significantly up-regulated in the 16 μg/L Hg2+ group. In addition, Hg2+ exposure up-regulated thyroid hormone receptor β (trβ) mRNA level, while the transcription of trα was not changed. Overall, our study indicated that environmentally relevant concentrations of Hg2+ exposure could alter TH levels and the transcription of related HPT-axis genes, disturbing the normal processes of TH metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaling Sun
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Animal Biology, School of Life Sciences, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing, 401331, China
| | - Yingwen Li
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Animal Biology, School of Life Sciences, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing, 401331, China
| | - Zhihao Liu
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Animal Biology, School of Life Sciences, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing, 401331, China
| | - Qiliang Chen
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Animal Biology, School of Life Sciences, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing, 401331, China.
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Fu D, Bridle A, Leef M, Norte Dos Santos C, Nowak B. Hepatic expression of metal-related genes and gill histology in sand flathead (Platycephalus bassensis) from a metal contaminated estuary. MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2017; 131:80-89. [PMID: 28943068 DOI: 10.1016/j.marenvres.2017.09.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2017] [Revised: 09/12/2017] [Accepted: 09/16/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Hepatic gene expression and gill histology were measured in sand flathead (Platycephalus bassensis) from a metal polluted estuary. The gene expression analyses were conducted on fish from two most polluted sites and a reference site. The metal-related genes were metal-regulatory transcription factor 1 (MTF1), transferrin (TF), ferriportin1 (FPN1), ferritin and metallothionein. The transcripts of MTF1, TF, and FPN1 were significantly higher in the liver of fish caught at polluted sites, suggesting these genes are potential biomarkers for environmental exposure to metal. Strong correlations were found between the transcripts of these three genes. Four types of gill lesions such as hyperplasia and lamellar fusion, epitheliocystis, telangiectasis, and deformed filament were observed in sampled fish. There was significant difference in the prevalence of epitheliocystis and telangiectasis between the fish from the polluted areas and reference area. Gill parasites were less prevalent in the flathead from polluted sites. The gill histopathological results indicated both pollutants and infections could contribute to gill lesions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dingkun Fu
- Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies, University of Tasmania, Locked Bag 1370, Launceston, Tasmania 7250, Australia.
| | - Andrew Bridle
- Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies, University of Tasmania, Locked Bag 1370, Launceston, Tasmania 7250, Australia
| | - Melanie Leef
- Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies, University of Tasmania, Locked Bag 1370, Launceston, Tasmania 7250, Australia
| | - Catarina Norte Dos Santos
- Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies, University of Tasmania, Locked Bag 1370, Launceston, Tasmania 7250, Australia
| | - Barbara Nowak
- Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies, University of Tasmania, Locked Bag 1370, Launceston, Tasmania 7250, Australia
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