Urban daily life routines and human exposure to environmental discomfort

Integrated assessment of personal monitor applications for evaluating exposure to urban stressors: A scoping review

Urban stressors pose a health risk, and individual-level assessments provide necessary and fine-grained insight into exposure. An ever-increasing amount of research literature on individual-level exposure to urban stressors using data collected with personal monitors, has called for an integrated assessment approach to identify trends, gaps and needs, and provide recommendations for future research. To this end, a scoping review of the respective literature was performed, as part of the H2020 URBANOME project. Moreover, three specific aims were identified: (i) determine current state of research, (ii) analyse literature according with a waterfall methodological framework and identify gaps and needs, and (iii) provide recommendations for more integrated, inclusive and robust approaches. Knowledge and gaps were extracted based on a systematic approach, e.g., data extraction questionnaires, as well as through the expertise of the researchers performing the review. The findings were assessed through a waterfall methodology of delineating projects into four phases. Studies described in the papers vary in their scope, with most assessing exposure in a single macro domain, though a trend of moving towards multi-domain assessment is evident. Simultaneous measurements of multiple stressors are not common, and papers predominantly assess exposure to air pollution. As urban environments become more diverse, stakeholders from different groups are included in the study designs. Most frequently (per the quadruple helix model), civil society/NGO groups are involved, followed by government and policymakers, while business or private sector stakeholders are less frequently represented. Participants in general function as data collectors and are rarely involved in other phases of the research. While more active involvement is not necessary, more collaborative approaches show higher engagement and motivation of participants to alter their lifestyles based on the research results. The identified trends, gaps and needs can aid future exposure research and provide recommendations on addressing different urban communities and stakeholders.

Association between levels of radon and bioaerosols (bacteria and fungi) by living conditions

This study aimed to measure the levels of airborne radon Rn and bioaerosols - culturable airborne bacteria (CAB) and culturable airborne fungi (CAF)-in South Korea's residential environments, considering living conditions such as the number of ventilations, number of windows, floors, temperature, and relative humidity. . The range of Rn levels was 0.43-7.439 pCi/L with a median of 0.70 pCi/L. The CAB levels were 239-488 colony-forming unit (CFU)/m³ with a median of 309 CFU/m³, and CAF levels were 174-366 CFU/m³ with a median of 233 CFU/m³. Thus, this study found that semi-basement residential indoor environments negatively affected Rn and bioaerosol levels, and living in such residences resulted in high health condition scores on the bad side. Given the correlation between airborne Rn and bioaerosol levels, further large-scale studies are needed to identify more reliable and representative of research.

Women Emotional, Cognitive and Physiological Modes of Coping with Daily Urban Environments: A Pilot Study

Studies on the effect of urban environments on human risk to health and well-being tend to focus on either physiological or cognitive and emotional effects. For each of these effects, several indicators have been proposed. They are determined either by a physiological-emotional theory or by a cognitive theory of direct attention. However, the interrelationships between these indices have not been thoroughly investigated in environmental contexts. Recently, a neuro-visceral model that incorporates all three aspects has been proposed. The present article focuses on understanding the mechanism of coping with urban environments. More specifically, we analyze the interrelations among nine of the more commonly used indices that represent the physiological, emotional and cognitive aspects of coping with urban environments. The data were collected in the following four environments: home, park, city center and residential area. The participants were 72 healthy, middle-class mothers with either high school or postgraduate education. They wherein their fertile age (20-35) with average Body Mass Index (BMI) of 22.2 and S.D. of 0.8 (48 Arab Muslims and 24 Jewish). They were recruited in a snowball method. Path analysis and principal component analysis are used in order to identify the interrelations among the physiological, cognitive and emotional indices and the directions of these interrelations. According to the findings, the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS), as measured by Heart Rate Variability (HRV) and primarily the parasympathetic tone (High frequency-HF) is the pivotal mechanism that modulates emotional and cognitive responses to environmental nuisances. The ANS response precedes and may trigger the emotional and the cognitive responses, which are only partially interrelated. It appears that the autonomic balance measured by Standard Deviation of NN interval (SDNN) and HF, the cognitive index of restoration and the emotional indices of discomfort and relaxation are closely interrelated. These seemingly disparate operands work together to form a comprehensive underlying network that apparently causes stress and risk to health in urban environments while restoring health in green environments.

Individual Momentary Experiences of Neighborhood Public Spaces: Results of a Virtual Environment Based Stated Preference Experiment

Although it has become increasingly recognized that the spatial design of public space plays an important role in the perceived quality of the built environment by users, there is still little known about the influences of specific attributes on individuals’ experiences. Therefore, this study aims at (1) identifying the factors underlying momentary experiences in public space given both cognitive (satisfaction) and affective (emotion) responses and (2) understanding the experiences as a function of green and design attributes and analyzing the heterogeneity in preferences. To achieve the research goals, this study innovatively introduced an online video-based stated preference experiment. A national sample of 316 individuals from the Netherlands were invited to complete the experiment. The results of a factor analysis indicate that the momentary experiences of the environments presented can be reduced to a single preference dimension capturing the cognitive as well as affective elements of experiences. The results of a latent class regression analysis furthermore show that there is substantial heterogeneity on how attributes are experienced. Three classes emerge which differ in terms of satisfaction with life and satisfaction with availability of green in the current living environment on dwelling, neighborhood, and city level. Presence of trees, vertical green on façades, and grass surfaces were found to be most important for individuals’ experiences generally. The paper provides a new understanding of how spatial attributes in neighborhood public spaces can influence individuals’ momentary experiences. For cities pursuing both greenification and densification, this study offers quantitative evidence to support the selection of design attributes of neighborhood public spaces which can evoke positive experiences.

The role of social vs. physical environmental nuisances in affecting stress among Jewish and Muslim women in Israel

We calculate the effects of selected social and physical environmental nuisances on the autonomic nervous system balance among Jewish and Muslim mothers. Seventy-two Jewish and Muslim young healthy mothers from an Arab and Jewish neighboring city were tested in seven urban environments. Three social mediators (social discomfort, participation in household's decision-making and freedom of movement) and three physical mediators (thermal load, carbon monoxide and noise) were considered. Mean differences between Jewish and Muslim heart rate variability (HRV) and the effects of the mediating variables were calculated by ANOVA and stepwise multiple regressions. The results suggest that HRV was predominantly affected by social discomfort. Jewish and Muslim mothers experienced similar levels of social discomfort albeit; their responses differed by type of environment. Jewish mothers experienced stronger social discomfort in outdoor environments while Muslim mothers felt stronger social discomfort at home. Crossing ethnic boundaries was associated with increase in stress in both groups. Social discomfort played a stronger role in predicting stress in inter-ethnic environments. In conclusion, the study shows that social discomfort is a predominant environmental factor in predicting stress and related risk to health as reflected in the ANS balance across ethnicities. In addition ethnic specific factors like women freedom of movement played a minor role in effecting stress. At the same time the physical environmental aspects played essential role in effecting stress.

A comprehensive review of thermal comfort studies in urban open spaces

Urban open spaces provide various benefits to large populations in cities. Since thermally comfortable urban open spaces improve the quality of urban living, an increasing number of studies have been conducted to extend the existing knowledge of outdoor thermal comfort. This paper comprehensively reviews current outdoor thermal comfort studies, including benchmarks, data collection methods, and models of outdoor thermal comfort. Because outdoor thermal comfort is a complex issue influenced by various factors, a conceptual framework is proposed which includes physical, physiological and psychological factors as direct influences; and behavioral, personal, social, cultural factors, as well as thermal history, site, and alliesthesia, as indirect influences. These direct and indirect factors are further decomposed and reviewed, and the interactions among various factors are discussed. This review provides researchers with a systematic and comprehensive understanding of outdoor thermal comfort, and can also guide designers and planners in creating thermally comfortable urban open spaces.

Outdoor thermal perception and comfort conditions in the Köppen-Geiger climate category BSk. One-year field survey and measurement campaign in Konya, Turkey

This study presents an analysis of the thermo-hygrometric conditions in the city of Konya (Turkey). A one-year transversal field survey was carried out in the Selçuk University campus and 2295 valid questionnaires were collected. In each questionnaire, randomly selected interviewees provided personal information and judged their perception and thermal preference according to the ASHRAE 7-point and McIntyre scales, respectively. For each interviewee, a value of the Physiological Equivalent Temperature (PET) was calculated based on the values of operational variables obtained from the questionnaires and the environmental variables measured during the survey. This allowed to calculate the seasonal preferred and neutral PETs and the annual PET comfort range. Also, the scale of the PET thermal perception was determined for the Konya population and, more generally, for the inhabitants of the BSk Köppen-Geiger climate zone. Statistical analyzes carried out in terms of Variance Inflationary Factor, multicollinearity assessment and Best Subsets Analysis led to the identification of the Turkish Outdoor Comfort Index, an empirical index able to predict the average value of the thermal perception of a large group of individuals living in the aforementioned climate zone. Moreover, the equations of the Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied (PPD) were obtained for each season.

Radon and PM10 concentrations in underground parking lots and subway stations with health risks in South Korea

This study examined the environmental factors that affect indoor radon (Rn) and particulate matter (PM₁₀) concentrations in underground public facilities such as subway stations and underground parking lots. Rn and PM₁₀ concentrations from March 2014 to October 2015 were evaluated at 40 subway stations and 19 underground parking lots. Average underground concentrations of Rn and PM₁₀ were 37.3 ± 17.1 Bq/m³ and 78.6 ± 15.1 μg/m³, respectively. There were significant difference in Rn concentration between sampling points, with the highest concentration 41.8 ± 18.1 Bq/m³ on subway platforms, while the highest concentration of PM₁₀ was 83.7 ± 13.8 μg/m³ in transfer pathways. Rn concentration showed positive correlation with PM₁₀ concentration (r = 0.380, p < 0.001). The highest Rn concentration occurred during fall season, followed by summer and spring. At 60-h exposure duration in underground subway stations and parking lots, the hazard quotient (HQ) of Rn exceeded 1 for children less than 1 year old and those between 8 and 10 years old.

[Motorized mobility, environmental impact, alternatives and future prospects: considerations for the Área Metropolitana del Valle de Aburrá]

Motorized mobility is closely linked to liquid fuels such as gasoline and diésel and therefore, to the environment. Besides the problems associated with global warming, the use of these fuels also generates polluting compounds affecting the population health. Among all primary pollutants, particulate matter (PM) less than or equal to 2.5 microns (PM25) in size, is regarded as one of the most dangerous compounds because it can penetrate the region lung gas exchange. The records for the Área Metropolitana del Valle de Aburrá (AMVA) often show that the average levels of air quality were found to be harmful to the health of metropolitan habitants. This is mainly attributed to the high concentrations of PM25 generated by heavy-duty vehicles that use diésel fuel. Although the properties of diesel fuel have a direct effect on breathable PM, there are other strategies influencing both nature and amount of emissions. For example, the improvement of the technological level of the engines and the driving pattern, as well as the incorporation of electric vehicles. This paper shows some considerations in order to propose possible strategies to solve the environmental problem of the city and the country.

An Agent-Based Modeling Framework for Simulating Human Exposure to Environmental Stresses in Urban Areas

Several approaches have been used to assess potential human exposure to environmental stresses and achieve optimal results under various conditions, such as for example, for different scales, groups of people, or points in time. A thorough literature review in this paper identifies the research gap regarding modeling approaches for assessing human exposure to environment stressors, and it indicates that microsimulation tools are becoming increasingly important in human exposure assessments of urban environments, in which each person is simulated individually and continuously. The paper further describes an agent-based model (ABM) framework that can dynamically simulate human exposure levels, along with their daily activities, in urban areas that are characterized by environmental stresses such as air pollution and heat stress. Within the framework, decision-making processes can be included for each individual based on rule-based behavior in order to achieve goals under changing environmental conditions. The ideas described in this paper are implemented in a free and open source NetLogo platform. A basic modeling scenario of the ABM framework in Hamburg, Germany, demonstrates its utility in various urban environments and individual activity patterns, as well as its portability to other models, programs, and frameworks. The prototype model can potentially be extended to support environmental incidence management through exploring the daily routines of different groups of citizens, and comparing the effectiveness of different strategies. Further research is needed to fully develop an operational version of the model.

Human exposure to environmental health concern by types of urban environment: The case of Tel Aviv

This study classifies urban environments into types characterized by different exposure to environmental risk factors measured by general sense of discomfort and Heart Rate Variability (HRV). We hypothesize that a set of environmental factors (micro-climatic, CO, noise and individual heart rate) that were measured simultaneously in random locations can provide a better understanding of the distribution of human exposure to environmental loads throughout the urban space than results calculated based on measurements from close fixed stations. We measured micro-climatic and thermal load, CO and noise, individual Heart Rate, Subjective Social Load and Sense of Discomfort (SD) were tested by questionnaire survey. The results demonstrate significant differences in exposure to environmental factors among 8 types of urban environments. It appears that noise and social load are the more significant environmental factors to enhance health risks and general sense of discomfort.

The impact of an urban park on air pollution and noise levels in the Mediterranean city of Tel-Aviv, Israel

This study examines the influence of urban parks on air quality and noise in the city of Tel-Aviv, Israel, by investigation of an urban park, an urban square and a street canyon. Simultaneous monitoring of several air pollutants and noise levels were conducted. The results showed that urban parks can reduce NOx, CO and PM10 and increase O3 concentrations and that park's mitigation effect is greater at higher NOx and PM10 levels. During extreme events, mean values of 413 ppb NOx and 80 μG/m3 PM10 were measured in the street while mean values of 89 ppb NOx and 24 μG/m3 PM10 were measured in the park. Whereas summer highest O3 values of 84 ppb were measured in the street, 94 ppb were measured in the park. The benefit of the urban park in reducing NOx and PM10 concentrations is more significant than the disadvantage of increased O3 levels. Furthermore, urban parks can reduce noise by ∼5 dB(A).

Exposure of motorcycle, car and bus commuters to carbon monoxide on a main road in the Tel Aviv metropolitan area, Israel

Short-term personal exposure of passengers in different types of motor vehicles to carbon monoxide was investigated in an intensively used main road in Israel's Tel Aviv metropolitan area. According to monitoring stations of the Ministry for Environmental Protection (MEP), concentrations of carbon monoxide (CO) along the road, at a height of 3 m above pedestrian level, in the Tel Aviv metropolitan area, are currently very low. However, these measurements do not reflect the actual exposure of commuters, which were the main objective of this study. Four vehicle types/travel modes were investigated: private cars with closed windows, private cars with open windows, motorcycles, and buses. The commuter CO average exposure was the accumulative exposure divided by the duration of the sampling taken along the route, for each type of vehicles. The results showed that commuters in cars with closed windows were exposed to the highest mean CO level, 27.2 ppm, for a period of 38 min; those in a car with open windows, to 19.7 ppm for 38 min; motorcycle riders, to 12.8 ppm, for 17 min; and bus users were exposed to the lowest mean pollution level, of only 3.6 ppm, for 25 min. Thus, CO values of 1 to 3 ppm, as measured at an MEP adjacent monitoring station, may indicate the exposure to CO pollution of area residents, but do not represent the actual exposure of commuters on the congested main road.

The effects of exposure to environmental factors on Heart Rate Variability: an ecological perspective

The impact of human exposure to environmental factors on Heart Rate Variability (HRV) was examined in the urban space of Tel-Aviv-Jaffa. Four environmental factors were investigated: thermal and social loads; CO concentrations and noise. Levels of HRV are explained mainly by subjective social stresses, noise and CO. The most interesting result is the fact that while subjective social stress and noise increase HRV, low levels of CO are reducing HRV to some extent moderating the impact of subjective social stress and noise. Beyond the poisoning effect of CO and the fact that extremely low levels of HRV associated with high dozes of CO increase risk for life, low levels of CO may have a narcotic effect, as it is measured by HRV. The effects of thermal loads on HRV are negligible probably due to the use of behavioral means in order to neutralize heat and cold effects.