Parenting and Youth Onset of Depression Across Three Years: Examining the Influence of Observed Parenting on Child and Adolescent Depressive Outcomes

Longitudinal coupling of emotional wellbeing in parent-adolescent dyads: Evaluating the role of daily life positive affect socialization processes

This study evaluated the role of bidirectional micro- and macro- level positive affect-related processes in the longitudinal coupling of depressive symptoms in parent-adolescent dyads. Using a measurement-burst design, including dyadic experience sampling methods (ESM) and monthly follow-ups over one year, this work investigated associations between (1) parental depressive symptoms and anhedonia and parental daily-life enhancing and dampening responses to youth positive affect; (2) parental daily-life enhancing and dampening and trajectories of youth positive affect, negative affect, and depressive symptoms across one year; and (3) youth developmental trajectories and prospective parental daily-life enhancing and dampening, and parental depressive symptoms and anhedonia at one-year follow-up. Participants included 146 early adolescents (52.1% girls, 47.9% boys; Mage[SD] = 12.71[.86]) and 139 parents (78.7% mothers; Mage[SD] = 44.11[5.08]). Parental enhancing and dampening were measured using a dyadic ESM procedure at baseline and 12-months. Youth completed monthtly questionnaires assessing depressive symptoms and trait positive and negative affect across 12 months. Parents reported on depressive symptoms and anhedonia at baseline and 12-months. Results showed that parental anhedonia negatively related to parental daily-life enhancing, and youths' perceptions of their parents' enhancing and dampening reciprocally related to youth emotional development across one year, with downstream implications for parents' own symptoms of depression.

Adolescent Developmental Pathways Among Depression, Conduct Problems, and Rejection: Integrative Data Analysis Across Three Samples

OBJECTIVE

The current study investigated sex differences in longitudinal associations among youth depression, conduct problems, and peer rejection from ages 11 to 16. We hypothesized that girls would follow the irritable depression model, which posits that depression leads to conduct problems, and that peer rejection would mediate this relationship. We hypothesized that boys would follow the cumulative failure model, which suggests that conduct problems predict future depression, mediated by peer rejection.

METHOD

We used integrative data analysis to combine three datasets, creating an aggregate sample of 2,322 adolescents, 58.4% of an ethnic minority group, and 51.3% boys. Using random-intercept cross-lagged panel modeling with data from ages 11-16, we conducted a nested model comparison.

RESULTS

Results indicated that a model which allowed paths to differ by sex demonstrated better model fit than a constrained model. While depression, conduct problems, and peer rejection were relatively stable over time and had correlated random intercepts, there were few crossover paths between these domains for either sex. When the strengths of individual crossover pathways were compared based on sex, only the path from conduct problems at age 13 to depression at age 14 was significantly different, with this path being stronger for girls.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that stable, between-person effects largely drive relationships between depression, conduct problems, and peer rejection during adolescence, whereas there are few transactional, within-person pathways between these domains. This pattern of findings demonstrates the utility of random intercept cross-lagged panel modeling for disentangling between- and within-person effects.

The Acceptability of a Psychoeducation and Skill-Based Training for Carers and Teachers to Cope with Risky Behaviours in Adolescence

Childhood and adolescence psychopathology is associated with an increased risk of psychological difficulties in adulthood. Early interventions for youth should provide carers and teachers with knowledge and skills to respond to adolescents' risky behaviours. This study evaluated the acceptability and effectiveness of a single 3-h workshop, combining psychoeducation and skills training to promote knowledge about, and confidence to address, adolescents' risky behaviours in carers and teachers of adolescents aged 10-14. Demographics and perceived self-efficacy in the parental or teaching role were collected at baseline using self-report questionnaires. Motivation and confidence to respond to adolescents' risky behaviours were measured before and after the workshop using motivational rulers. Participants provided written feedback about their experience about the workshop. Twenty-seven carers and 27 teachers attended the workshops. Teachers reported a significant increase in both importance (p = 0.021) and confidence (p < 0.001) to respond to risky behaviours following the workshop. This change was associated with baseline self-efficacy levels (importance: p = 0.011; confidence: p = 0.002). Carers also reported greater confidence to address risky behaviours following the workshop (p = 0.002). Participants found the contents and methods of the workshop highly acceptable. Online and multiple-session workshops might increase reach and effectiveness.

Maternal engagement, relational closeness, and adolescent internalizing symptoms: The association of engaged mothering with adolescent depression and anxiety

Prevalence rates of anxiety and depression have increased among adolescents in recent years. The etiology of these internalizing symptoms is complex, but mothers can play a role in the mental health of their adolescent children. Using data from Year 15 of the fragile families and child well-being study, we analyzed associations between adolescent-reported maternal engagement, mother-adolescent relationship closeness, and adolescent depression and anxiety in a sample of 3146 mother-adolescent dyads. Using structural equation modeling, the four areas of engagement, closeness, anxiety, and depression were all modeled as latent variables to test the associations between these constructs. Higher levels of maternal engagement were significantly associated with higher levels of closeness between mother and adolescent, and higher levels of closeness were significantly associated with adolescents' lower levels of both depression and anxiety. Bootstrapped indirect effects were identified. Implications and future directions are discussed.

Perceived parenting styles and incidence of major depressive disorder: results from a 6985 freshmen cohort study

BACKGROUND

Even though a fair amount of studies focus on depression among college students, the effect of perceived parenting styles on the incidence of major depressive disorder (MDD) among representative freshmen in Chinese context is scarcely studied. The aim of this study is to investigate the effect of parenting styles on MDD in Chinese freshmen.

METHODS

A total of 9,928 Chinese freshmen were recruited in 2018. 6985 valid questionnaires were collected at one-year follow-up. Composite International Diagnostic Interview 3.0 (CIDI-3.0) was used for the diagnosis of MDD. Egna Minnen Beträffande Uppfostran (EMBU) questionnaire and Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II) were used to assess parenting styles and baseline depressive symptoms, respectively. The associations between parenting styles and MDD incidence was analyzed with logistic regression.

RESULTS

The incidence of MDD in freshmen was 2.23% (95%CI: 1.91-2.60%). Maternal overprotection (OR = 1.03, 95%CI: 1.01-1.05) and disharmony relationship between parents (OR = 2.35, 95% CI: 1.42-3.89) increased the risk of new-onset MDD in freshmen, respectively. Mild depressive symptoms (OR = 2.06, 95%CI: 1.06-4.02), moderate (OR = 4.64, 95%CI: 2.55-8.44) and severe depressive symptoms (OR = 7.46, 95%CI: 2.71-20.52) at baseline increased the risk of new-onset MDD.

CONCLUSIONS

Maternal overprotection, disharmony relationship between parents and baseline depressive symptoms are risk factors for new-onset MDD in Chinese freshmen.

Needs of Caregivers of Youth Enrolled in a Statewide System of Care: A Latent Class Analysis

Objective

Systems of care (SOC) provide a coordinated array of services to youth with serious emotional and behavioral problems and their families. Little is known about what caregiver-specific needs at presentation to care may contribute to use of and engagement with care coordination and subsequent youth and family outcomes. This study aimed to determine latent classes of youth enrolled in wraparound care coordination within a statewide SOC based on caregiver needs impacting youth functioning and identify the relationship between class membership and characteristics of participation in Child and Family Team meetings (CFTs) and mental health outcomes at six-month follow-up.

Method

Participants were 703 youth (Mage = 11.21, SD = 3.67) and their caregivers that had information about caregiver needs and received a six-month follow-up assessment. Latent class analysis determined latent classes of families based on caregiver service needs at presentation to care, and differences in participation in care coordination and youth outcomes at 6-month follow up based on class membership was examined.

Results

Results indicated four classes of caregivers: Physical Health Needs, No Needs, Basic Needs, and Mental Health/Trauma Needs. Class membership was associated with size of the CFT, number of CFTs attended by the youth, percentage of CFTs with a natural support present, and percentage of CFTs that occurred in the family's home. Class membership was associated with caregiver ratings of objective strain at 6-month follow-up.

Conclusion

Assessing caregiver needs at presentation to care can provide direction for care coordinators to more directly target areas of family need through wraparound and individualize services.

The School of Hard Talks: A telehealth parent training group for caregivers of adolescents and young adults

AIM

A large body of evidence demonstrates the importance of the family environment in the developmental trajectory of mental illness in young people. Caregiver communication skills training represents a potential model for influencing the outcomes of adolescents and young adults struggling with emerging mental health and behavioural difficulties. The aim of the current study is to describe the development of a telehealth group training intervention for caregivers of adolescents and young adults, and to report the results of a pilot feasibility-effectiveness study that took place in 2020-2021.

METHODS

The "School of Hard Talks" intervention consisted of 8 h of training in communication skills consistent with motivational interviewing techniques. All pilot study participants were assigned to receive the intervention. Outcomes of interest were family conflict, caregiver stress, caregiver self-efficacy and expressed emotion (EE). Participants were assessed three times: prior to the intervention, after the intervention and 12 weeks later.

RESULTS

A total of 62 participants enrolled in the study, of whom 49 completed the intervention. Large, significant improvements were observed over time in all four domains of interest. Qualitative feedback from parents was very positive and added context to quantitative observations.

CONCLUSIONS

The School of Hard Talks was a feasible and effective intervention targeting both caregiver wellbeing as well as important mechanisms of risk for youth psychopathology, namely family conflict and EE. Further research involving a larger sample and a control condition are needed to confirm these findings.

Development and Validation of the Chinese Version of the Highly Sensitive Child Scale: Understanding environmental sensitivity and depressive symptoms in adolescents

Background

Environmental sensitivity (ES) is considered a significant personality factor in the development and maintenance of depressive symptoms in adolescents. However, a clear instrument that can capture ES in Chinese adolescents is lacking. The current study aimed to investigate the psychometric properties of a Chinese version of the Highly Sensitive Child (HSC) Scale for assessing adolescent ES, and explore the potential moderation effect of ES on relationships between maternal behaviors and adolescent depressive symptoms.

Methods

In total, 2,166 students from four middle and high schools and 105 depressed adolescents completed measurements of environmental sensitivity, maternal behaviors, depressive emotions, sleep duration, and academic performance.

Results

First, exploratory factor and confirmatory factor analyses indicated that the HSC scale had a good model fit with the bifactor construct, total scale reliability was adequate-good, and measurement invariances across genders and different samples were supported. Furthermore, the results confirmed that the relationship between maternal behaviors and adolescent depressive symptoms had small effects. Compared to low environmentally sensitive adolescents, high environmentally sensitive adolescents exhibited less depressive emotions and better academic performance in the context of high-quality maternal behaviors. Low-quality maternal behaviors significantly predicted increased depressive emotions and worse academic performance in adolescents when environmental sensitivity was high. Moreover, on the contrary, maternal behaviors did not influence depressive emotions and academic performance in adolescents who were less sensitive to their environment. The relationship between maternal behaviors and adolescent depressive symptoms is influenced by different levels of environmental sensitivity.

Conclusion

Our findings support the HSC scale as a comprehensive and psychometrically robust tool to measure ES in Chinese adolescents. In addition, the present study clarifies the moderating role of environmental sensitivity underlying the relationship between maternal behaviors and adolescent depressive symptoms. It is important to consider the role of ES in prevention and intervention strategies targeting adolescent depressive symptoms.

Transactional processes among perceived parental warmth, positivity, and depressive symptoms from middle childhood to early adolescence: Disentangling between- and within-person associations

RATIONALE

Previous cross-sectional and unidirectional longitudinal studies have investigated the associations among perceived parental warmth, positivity, and depressive symptoms among children and adolescents without distinguishing between-person effects from within-person effects.

OBJECTIVE

The current study aimed to examine the dynamic longitudinal associations among perceived parental warmth, positivity, and depressive symptoms, including whether positivity functioned as a mediator of the reciprocal relations between perceived maternal/paternal warmth and depressive symptoms at the within-person level encompassing middle childhood to early adolescence.

METHODS

A sample of 3765 Chinese students (45.8% girls; M age = 9.92 years, SD = 0.72; range = 9-12 years at Time 1) completed self-report measures on 4 occasions across 2 years, using 6-month intervals. Random-Intercept Cross-Lagged Panel Models were employed to disentangle between- and within-person effects.

RESULTS

(a) Perceived maternal/paternal warmth and depressive symptoms reciprocally and negatively predicted each other; (b) positivity and depressive symptoms reciprocally and negatively predicted each other; (c) perceived maternal/paternal warmth and positivity reciprocally and positively predicted each other; (d) depressive symptoms indirectly predicted perceived maternal/paternal warmth via positivity; (e) perceived maternal warmth displayed earlier and more stable effects on positivity and depressive symptoms than perceived paternal warmth; and (f), no childhood sex differences existed in the observed associations.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings highlight the longitudinal within-person transactions among perceived parental warmth, positivity, and depressive symptoms, and the differential roles of perceived maternal/paternal warmth. These findings may help provide a potential theoretical framework through which to precisely identify objectives for early intervention.

Parenting, Peers and Psychosocial Adjustment: Are the Same-or Different-Children Affected by Each?

The prospective research presented herein extends work on parent and peer effects on adolescent psychosocial adjustment by looking beyond average effects. Instead, it considers variation in susceptibility to each source of influence in order to assess the extent to which those individuals most and least susceptible to parent effects are similarly-or differentially-susceptible to peer effects. Data from the NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development (n = 1364, 48.3% female, age range: 10-15 yrs., race/ethnicity: 80.4% white, 12.9% black and 6.7% other) was analyzed to assess the degree to which each child was susceptible to parent and peer effects. Toward this end, an influence statistic, DFBETAS, was used. A significant and moderate positive association between the two susceptibility effects indicated that children most or least susceptible to the effects of quality of parenting proved to be similarly affected by their peers, although this was not the case for a substantial minority of youth. The fact that at least some children vary dramatically in the effects to which they are most susceptible is discussed with respect to potential targets of intervention, namely, parents or peers.

Transactional processes between childhood maltreatment and depressive symptoms from middle childhood to early adolescence: Locus of control as a mediator

BACKGROUND

Previous research has identified a significant, positive relation between childhood maltreatment and depressive symptoms. However, the findings required replication at the within-person level. Moreover, the mediating mechanism of locus of control accounting for their relations has yet to be fully evaluated. Thus, this study examined the dynamic longitudinal relations between childhood maltreatment and depressive symptoms including whether locus of control functioned as a mediator between them after separating between-person effects from within-person effects.

METHODS

A sample of 4110 Chinese children (50.60% boys; M_age = 9.89 at Wave 1) covering the transitional period from middle childhood to early adolescence completed a package of self-report measures on 5 occasions across 2.5 years, using 6-month intervals. Random Intercept Cross-Lagged Panel Models were applied to disaggregate between- and within-person effects. Also, alternative Cross-Lagged Panel Models were applied.

RESULTS

Locus of control played a mediating role in the reciprocal relations between childhood maltreatment and depressive symptoms at the within-person level.

LIMITATIONS

Some limitations existed in the measures. Moreover, sexual abuse was not investigated in this study.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings highlighted the mediating role of locus of control in the reciprocal relations between childhood maltreatment and depressive symptoms at the within-person level, suggesting that interventions targeted at promoting internal locus of control may help prevent the developmental pathway from childhood maltreatment to depressive symptoms and vice versa from middle childhood to early adolescence.

Associations of FKBP5 polymorphisms and methylation and parenting style with depressive symptoms among Chinese adolescents

BACKGROUND

Genetic factors may interplay with environmental stressors to contribute to risks of depressive symptoms. This study aimed to investigate the association of FKBP5 polymorphisms and DNA methylation with depressive symptoms among Chinese adolescents, considering the role of parenting style.

METHODS

This study used a nested case-control study design based on a cohort study, and the case (n = 120) and control groups (n = 118) were matched with age. Depressive symptoms, parenting style, and other demographics were measured. Fourteen potential polymorphisms and one promoter region in the FKBP5 gene were selected for genotyping and methylation analysis.

RESULTS

In the adjusted models, a significant association between FKBP5 rs7757037 and depressive symptoms was found in the codominant model (AG vs. GG; adjusted odds ratio [AOR] = 2.56, 95% CI = 1.13-5.78) and dominant model (AA+AG vs. GG; AOR = 2.38, 95% CI = 1.11-5.120); rs2817032 and rs2817035 polymorphisms were associated with depressive symptoms in the codominant model and dominant model. Significant interactions between rs7757037 and the father's parenting style were found in the codominant model (P = 0.043) and dominant model (P = 0.043), but the gene-environment interactions were not significant after correcting for multiple testing. Moreover, the significant main effects of FKBP5 methylation status on depressive symptoms were not observed, and there was no significant interaction between FKBP5 methylation status and parenting style on depressive symptoms.

CONCLUSIONS

Further studies are required to confirm the effect of FKBP5 polymorphisms and methylation as well as their interactions with parenting styles in larger samples.

Longitudinal Coupling of Depression in Parent-Adolescent Dyads: Within- and Between-Dyad Effects Over Time

The present work evaluated reciprocal, within-dyad associations between parent-adolescent depressive symptoms across two independent samples (N=327 and N=435 dyads, respectively; approximately 85% biological mothers) assessed every three months for two (Study 1) to three (Study 2) years. Results of random intercept cross-lagged panel models converged to support positive contemporaneous patterns of co-fluctuation in parent and adolescent depression, such that within-person deviations in parental depression were associated with same direction within-person deviations in adolescent depression at the same timepoint. In contrast, within-person fluctuations in parent depression did not predict prospective within-person fluctuations in adolescent depression, or vice versa, across the follow-up period. Results held across boys and girls, as well as dyads with and without a parental history of depressive disorder. Overall, findings advance knowledge by demonstrating that, after accounting for between-person/dyad variance, parent and adolescent depression demonstrate contemporaneous co-fluctuations, but do not demonstrate within-dyad reciprocity over time.

Systematically Defined Informative Priors in Bayesian Estimation: An Empirical Application on the Transmission of Internalizing Symptoms Through Mother-Adolescent Interaction Behavior

BACKGROUND

Bayesian estimation with informative priors permits updating previous findings with new data, thus generating cumulative knowledge. To reduce subjectivity in the process, the present study emphasizes how to systematically weigh and specify informative priors and highlights the use of different aggregation methods using an empirical example that examined whether observed mother-adolescent positive and negative interaction behavior mediate the associations between maternal and adolescent internalizing symptoms across early to mid-adolescence in a 3-year longitudinal multi-method design.

METHODS

The sample consisted of 102 mother-adolescent dyads (39.2% girls, M age T1 = 13.0). Mothers and adolescents reported on their internalizing symptoms and their interaction behaviors were observed during a conflict task. We systematically searched for previous studies and used an expert-informed weighting system to account for their relevance. Subsequently, we aggregated the (power) priors using three methods: linear pooling, logarithmic pooling, and fitting a normal distribution to the linear pool by means of maximum likelihood estimation. We compared the impact of the three differently specified informative priors and default priors on the prior predictive distribution, shrinkage, and the posterior estimates.

RESULTS

The prior predictive distributions for the three informative priors were quite similar and centered around the observed data mean. The shrinkage results showed that the logarithmic pooled priors were least affected by the data. Most posterior estimates were similar across the different priors. Some previous studies contained extremely specific information, resulting in bimodal posterior distributions for the analyses with linear pooled prior distributions. The posteriors following the fitted normal priors and default priors were very similar. Overall, we found that maternal, but not adolescent, internalizing symptoms predicted subsequent mother-adolescent interaction behavior, whereas negative interaction behavior seemed to predict subsequent internalizing symptoms. Evidence regarding mediation effects remained limited.

CONCLUSION

A systematic search for previous information and an expert-built weighting system contribute to a clear specification of power priors. How information from multiple previous studies should be included in the prior depends on theoretical considerations (e.g., the prior is an updated Bayesian distribution), and may also be affected by pragmatic considerations regarding the impact of the previous results at hand (e.g., extremely specific previous results).

Multiple domains of risk factors for first onset of depression in adolescent girls

BACKGROUND

First onsets of depression are especially common in adolescent females and often develop into chronic/recurrent illness. Surprisingly few studies have comprehensively evaluated multiple domains of etiologically-informative risk factors for first onset in adolescents from the community. We investigated whether clinical, cognitive, personality, interpersonal, and biological risk factors prospectively predict a first onset of depressive disorder (DD), and of DD with a chronic/recurrent course, in a community sample of adolescent girls.

METHODS

479 girls (13.5-15.5 years) with no history of DD completed baseline assessments of risk factors and five diagnostic assessments over 3 years. Baseline measures were analyzed separately and jointly to prospectively predict first-onset DD and first-onset chronic/recurrent DD.

RESULTS

Most risk factors predicted first-onset DD (n = 93), including depressive symptoms, anxiety disorders, rumination, personality traits, blunted neural response (late positive potential [LPP]) to unpleasant pictures, peer victimization, parental criticism, and parental mood disorder. Depressive symptoms, rumination, parental mood disorder, and parental criticism were independently associated with first onsets. Nearly all measures, including a blunted neural response to rewards (reward positivity [RewP]), also predicted first-onset chronic/recurrent DD (n = 52), with depressive symptoms, low extraversion, poor peer relationships, and blunted RewP emerging as independent risk factors.

LIMITATIONS

This study focused on adolescent females and therefore does not provide information on males.

CONCLUSIONS

Multiple domains of risk factors in early adolescence are prospectively associated with first-onset DD and chronic/recurrent DD. A smaller subset of risk factors uniquely contributing to first onsets may represent core vulnerabilities for adolescent-onset depression and promising prevention targets.

Gender-Specific Trajectories of Depressive Symptoms in Chinese Children: Relations with Basic Psychological Needs Satisfaction at School

This longitudinal study identified gender-specific developmental trajectories of depressive symptoms in Chinese children and their relations with basic psychological needs satisfaction at school (satisfaction of autonomy needs at school, relatedness needs at school, and competence needs at school). A total of 692 Chinese elementary school students in grades 3 and 4 (M_age = 8.96 years; SD = 0.76; 53.6% boys) comprised the sample. Assessments were conducted every 6 months on six occasions over 30 months. Growth mixture modeling (GMM) was used to explore the depressive symptom trajectories for boys and girls separately. Four trajectories were identified for girls: low (60.3%), high (12.4%), increasing (9.8%), and high-start (17.5%). Two trajectories were identified for boys: low (86.5%) and high (13.5%). After controlling for anxiety, the results showed that compared to the low trajectory of depressive symptoms, lower satisfaction of relatedness needs at school predicted the high and high-start trajectories for girls, and lower satisfaction of competence needs at school predicted the high trajectory for boys. The findings of the varying developmental patterns of depressive symptoms and their relations with basic psychological needs satisfaction at school inform strategies for monitoring depressive symptoms among children as well as effective strategies for prevention and intervention.