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Steinert S, Ruf V, Dzsotjan D, Großmann N, Schmidt A, Kuhn J, Küchemann S. A refined approach for evaluating small datasets via binary classification using machine learning. PLoS One 2024; 19:e0301276. [PMID: 38771767 PMCID: PMC11108166 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0301276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2023] [Accepted: 03/13/2024] [Indexed: 05/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Classical statistical analysis of data can be complemented or replaced with data analysis based on machine learning. However, in certain disciplines, such as education research, studies are frequently limited to small datasets, which raises several questions regarding biases and coincidentally positive results. In this study, we present a refined approach for evaluating the performance of a binary classification based on machine learning for small datasets. The approach includes a non-parametric permutation test as a method to quantify the probability of the results generalising to new data. Furthermore, we found that a repeated nested cross-validation is almost free of biases and yields reliable results that are only slightly dependent on chance. Considering the advantages of several evaluation metrics, we suggest a combination of more than one metric to train and evaluate machine learning classifiers. In the specific case that both classes are equally important, the Matthews correlation coefficient exhibits the lowest bias and chance for coincidentally good results. The results indicate that it is essential to avoid several biases when analysing small datasets using machine learning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steffen Steinert
- Chair of Physics Education, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (LMU Munich), Munich, Germany
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, RPTU Kaiserslautern-Landau, Germany
| | - Verena Ruf
- Chair of Physics Education, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (LMU Munich), Munich, Germany
| | - David Dzsotjan
- Chair of Physics Education, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (LMU Munich), Munich, Germany
| | - Nicolas Großmann
- Smart Data & Knowledge Services, German Research Center for Artificial Intelligence, Kaiserslautern, Germany
| | - Albrecht Schmidt
- Human-Centered Ubiquitous Media, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (LMU Munich), Munich, Germany
| | - Jochen Kuhn
- Chair of Physics Education, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (LMU Munich), Munich, Germany
| | - Stefan Küchemann
- Chair of Physics Education, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (LMU Munich), Munich, Germany
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Jennings AM, Cox DJ. Starting the Conversation Around the Ethical Use of Artificial Intelligence in Applied Behavior Analysis. Behav Anal Pract 2024; 17:107-122. [PMID: 38405299 PMCID: PMC10891004 DOI: 10.1007/s40617-023-00868-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/02/2023] [Indexed: 02/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Artificial intelligence (AI) is increasingly a part of our everyday lives. Though much AI work in healthcare has been outside of applied behavior analysis (ABA), researchers within ABA have begun to demonstrate many different ways that AI might improve the delivery of ABA services. Though AI offers many exciting advances, absent from the behavior analytic literature thus far is conversation around ethical considerations when developing, building, and deploying AI technologies. Further, though AI is already in the process of coming to ABA, it is unknown the extent to which behavior analytic practitioners are familiar (and comfortable) with the use of AI in ABA. The purpose of this article is twofold. First, to describe how existing ethical publications (e.g., BACB Code of Ethics) do and do not speak to the unique ethical concerns with deploying AI in everyday, ABA service delivery settings. Second, to raise questions for consideration that might inform future ethical guidelines when developing and using AI in ABA service delivery. In total, we hope this article sparks proactive dialog around the ethical use of AI in ABA before the field is required to have a reactionary conversation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrienne M. Jennings
- Department of Behavioral Science, Daemen University, 4380 Main Street, Amherst, NY 14226 USA
| | - David J. Cox
- Institute for Applied Behavioral Science, Endicott College, Beverly, MA USA
- RethinkFirst, 49 W 27th St, 8th floor, New York, NY 10001 USA
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3
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Minissi ME, Altozano A, Marín-Morales J, Chicchi Giglioli IA, Mantovani F, Alcañiz M. Biosignal comparison for autism assessment using machine learning models and virtual reality. Comput Biol Med 2024; 171:108194. [PMID: 38428095 DOI: 10.1016/j.compbiomed.2024.108194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2023] [Revised: 02/08/2024] [Accepted: 02/18/2024] [Indexed: 03/03/2024]
Abstract
Clinical assessment procedures encounter challenges in terms of objectivity because they rely on subjective data. Computational psychiatry proposes overcoming this limitation by introducing biosignal-based assessments able to detect clinical biomarkers, while virtual reality (VR) can offer ecological settings for measurement. Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder where many biosignals have been tested to improve assessment procedures. However, in ASD research there is a lack of studies systematically comparing biosignals for the automatic classification of ASD when recorded simultaneously in ecological settings, and comparisons among previous studies are challenging due to methodological inconsistencies. In this study, we examined a VR screening tool consisting of four virtual scenes, and we compared machine learning models based on implicit (motor skills and eye movements) and explicit (behavioral responses) biosignals. Machine learning models were developed for each biosignal within the virtual scenes and then combined into a final model per biosignal. A linear support vector classifier with recursive feature elimination was used and tested using nested cross-validation. The final model based on motor skills exhibited the highest robustness in identifying ASD, achieving an AUC of 0.89 (SD = 0.08). The best behavioral model showed an AUC of 0.80, while further research is needed for the eye-movement models due to limitations with the eye-tracking glasses. These findings highlight the potential of motor skills in enhancing objectivity and reliability in the early assessment of ASD compared to other biosignals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Eleonora Minissi
- Instituto Universitario de Investigación en Tecnología Centrada en El Ser Humano (HUMAN-tech), Universitat Politécnica de Valencia, Valencia, Spain.
| | - Alberto Altozano
- Instituto Universitario de Investigación en Tecnología Centrada en El Ser Humano (HUMAN-tech), Universitat Politécnica de Valencia, Valencia, Spain
| | - Javier Marín-Morales
- Instituto Universitario de Investigación en Tecnología Centrada en El Ser Humano (HUMAN-tech), Universitat Politécnica de Valencia, Valencia, Spain
| | - Irene Alice Chicchi Giglioli
- Instituto Universitario de Investigación en Tecnología Centrada en El Ser Humano (HUMAN-tech), Universitat Politécnica de Valencia, Valencia, Spain
| | - Fabrizia Mantovani
- Centre for Studies in Communication Sciences "Luigi Anolli" (CESCOM), Department of Human Sciences for Education ''Riccardo Massa'', University of Milano - Bicocca, Building U16, Via Tomas Mann, 20162, Milan, Italy
| | - Mariano Alcañiz
- Instituto Universitario de Investigación en Tecnología Centrada en El Ser Humano (HUMAN-tech), Universitat Politécnica de Valencia, Valencia, Spain
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Nogay HS, Adeli H. Multiple Classification of Brain MRI Autism Spectrum Disorder by Age and Gender Using Deep Learning. J Med Syst 2024; 48:15. [PMID: 38252192 PMCID: PMC10803393 DOI: 10.1007/s10916-023-02032-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2023] [Accepted: 12/31/2023] [Indexed: 01/23/2024]
Abstract
The fact that the rapid and definitive diagnosis of autism cannot be made today and that autism cannot be treated provides an impetus to look into novel technological solutions. To contribute to the resolution of this problem through multiple classifications by considering age and gender factors, in this study, two quadruple and one octal classifications were performed using a deep learning (DL) approach. Gender in one of the four classifications and age groups in the other were considered. In the octal classification, classes were created considering gender and age groups. In addition to the diagnosis of ASD (Autism Spectrum Disorders), another goal of this study is to find out the contribution of gender and age factors to the diagnosis of ASD by making multiple classifications based on age and gender for the first time. Brain structural MRI (sMRI) scans of participators with ASD and TD (Typical Development) were pre-processed in the system originally designed for this purpose. Using the Canny Edge Detection (CED) algorithm, the sMRI image data was cropped in the data pre-processing stage, and the data set was enlarged five times with the data augmentation (DA) techniques. The most optimal convolutional neural network (CNN) models were developed using the grid search optimization (GSO) algorism. The proposed DL prediction system was tested with the five-fold cross-validation technique. Three CNN models were designed to be used in the system. The first of these models is the quadruple classification model created by taking gender into account (model 1), the second is the quadruple classification model created by taking into account age (model 2), and the third is the eightfold classification model created by taking into account both gender and age (model 3). ). The accuracy rates obtained for all three designed models are 80.94, 85.42 and 67.94, respectively. These obtained accuracy rates were compared with pre-trained models by using the transfer learning approach. As a result, it was revealed that age and gender factors were effective in the diagnosis of ASD with the system developed for ASD multiple classifications, and higher accuracy rates were achieved compared to pre-trained models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hidir Selcuk Nogay
- Electrical and Energy Department, Bursa Uludag University, Bursa, Turkey
| | - Hojjat Adeli
- Departments of Biomedical Informatics and Neuroscience, College of Medicine, The Ohio State University Neurology, 370 W. 9th Avenue, Columbus, OH, 43210, USA.
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Wagner L, Vehorn A, Weitlauf AS, Lavanderos AM, Wade J, Corona L, Warren Z. Development of a Novel Telemedicine Tool to Reduce Disparities Related to the Identification of Preschool Children with Autism. J Autism Dev Disord 2023:10.1007/s10803-023-06176-3. [PMID: 38064003 DOI: 10.1007/s10803-023-06176-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/29/2023] [Indexed: 12/20/2023]
Abstract
The wait for ASD evaluation dramatically increases with age, with wait times of a year or more common as children reach preschool. Even when appointments become available, families from traditionally underserved groups struggle to access care. Addressing care disparities requires designing identification tools and processes specifically for and with individuals most at-risk for health inequities. This work describes the development of a novel telemedicine-based ASD assessment tool, the TELE-ASD-PEDS-Preschool (TAP-Preschool). We applied machine learning models to a clinical data set of preschoolers with ASD and other developmental concerns (n = 914) to generate behavioral targets that best distinguish ASD and non-ASD features. We conducted focus groups with clinicians, early interventionists, and parents of children with ASD from traditionally underrepresented racial/ethnic and linguistic groups. Focus group themes and machine learning analyses were used to generate a play-based instrument with assessment tasks and scoring procedures based on the child's language (i.e., TAP-P Verbal, TAP-P Non-verbal). TAP-P procedures were piloted with 30 families. Use of the instrument in isolation (i.e., without history or collateral information) yielded accurate diagnostic classification in 63% of cases. Children with existing ASD diagnoses received higher TAP-P scores, relative to children with other developmental concerns. Clinician diagnostic accuracy and certainty were higher when confirming existing ASD diagnoses (80% agreement) than when ruling out ASD in children with other developmental concerns (30% agreement). Utilizing an equity approach to understand the functionality and impact of tele-assessment for preschool children has potential to transform the ASD evaluation process and improve care access.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liliana Wagner
- Vanderbilt Kennedy Center, Treatment and Research Institute for Autism Spectrum Disorders, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, 1241 Blakemore Avenue, # 161, Nashville, TN, 37212, USA.
- Department of Pediatrics, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA.
| | - Alison Vehorn
- Vanderbilt Kennedy Center, Treatment and Research Institute for Autism Spectrum Disorders, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, 1241 Blakemore Avenue, # 161, Nashville, TN, 37212, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Amy S Weitlauf
- Vanderbilt Kennedy Center, Treatment and Research Institute for Autism Spectrum Disorders, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, 1241 Blakemore Avenue, # 161, Nashville, TN, 37212, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Ambar Munoz Lavanderos
- Vanderbilt Kennedy Center, Treatment and Research Institute for Autism Spectrum Disorders, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, 1241 Blakemore Avenue, # 161, Nashville, TN, 37212, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Joshua Wade
- Adaptive Technology Consulting, LLC, Murfreesboro, USA
| | - Laura Corona
- Vanderbilt Kennedy Center, Treatment and Research Institute for Autism Spectrum Disorders, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, 1241 Blakemore Avenue, # 161, Nashville, TN, 37212, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Zachary Warren
- Vanderbilt Kennedy Center, Treatment and Research Institute for Autism Spectrum Disorders, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, 1241 Blakemore Avenue, # 161, Nashville, TN, 37212, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
- Department of Special Education, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
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Ponzo S, May M, Tamayo-Elizalde M, Bailey K, Shand AJ, Bamford R, Multmeier J, Griessel I, Szulyovszky B, Blakey W, Valentine S, Plans D. App Characteristics and Accuracy Metrics of Available Digital Biomarkers for Autism: Scoping Review. JMIR Mhealth Uhealth 2023; 11:e52377. [PMID: 37976084 PMCID: PMC10692878 DOI: 10.2196/52377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2023] [Revised: 10/30/2023] [Accepted: 11/02/2023] [Indexed: 11/19/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Diagnostic delays in autism are common, with the time to diagnosis being up to 3 years from the onset of symptoms. Such delays have a proven detrimental effect on individuals and families going through the process. Digital health products, such as mobile apps, can help close this gap due to their scalability and ease of access. Further, mobile apps offer the opportunity to make the diagnostic process faster and more accurate by providing additional and timely information to clinicians undergoing autism assessments. OBJECTIVE The aim of this scoping review was to synthesize the available evidence about digital biomarker tools to aid clinicians, researchers in the autism field, and end users in making decisions as to their adoption within clinical and research settings. METHODS We conducted a structured literature search on databases and search engines to identify peer-reviewed studies and regulatory submissions that describe app characteristics, validation study details, and accuracy and validity metrics of commercial and research digital biomarker apps aimed at aiding the diagnosis of autism. RESULTS We identified 4 studies evaluating 4 products: 1 commercial and 3 research apps. The accuracy of the identified apps varied between 28% and 80.6%. Sensitivity and specificity also varied, ranging from 51.6% to 81.6% and 18.5% to 80.5%, respectively. Positive predictive value ranged from 20.3% to 76.6%, and negative predictive value fluctuated between 48.7% and 97.4%. Further, we found a lack of details around participants' demographics and, where these were reported, important imbalances in sex and ethnicity in the studies evaluating such products. Finally, evaluation methods as well as accuracy and validity metrics of available tools were not clearly reported in some cases and varied greatly across studies. Different comparators were also used, with some studies validating their tools against the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders criteria and others through self-reported measures. Further, while in most cases, 2 classes were used for algorithm validation purposes, 1 of the studies reported a third category (indeterminate). These discrepancies substantially impact the comparability and generalizability of the results, thus highlighting the need for standardized validation processes and the reporting of findings. CONCLUSIONS Despite their popularity, systematic evaluations and syntheses of the current state of the art of digital health products are lacking. Standardized and transparent evaluations of digital health tools in diverse populations are needed to assess their real-world usability and validity, as well as help researchers, clinicians, and end users safely adopt novel tools within clinical and research practices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonia Ponzo
- Healios Limited, London, United Kingdom
- Institute of Health Informatics, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Merle May
- Healios Limited, London, United Kingdom
| | | | | | - Alanna J Shand
- Healios Limited, London, United Kingdom
- Institute of Epidemiology and Healthcare, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | | | | | | | | | - William Blakey
- Healios Limited, London, United Kingdom
- School of Computing, Engineering and Physical Sciences, University of the West of Scotland, Paisley, United Kingdom
| | | | - David Plans
- Healios Limited, London, United Kingdom
- Department of Psychology, Royal Holloway, University of London, London, United Kingdom
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Kapoor S, Narayanan A. Leakage and the reproducibility crisis in machine-learning-based science. PATTERNS (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2023; 4:100804. [PMID: 37720327 PMCID: PMC10499856 DOI: 10.1016/j.patter.2023.100804] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2023] [Revised: 05/18/2023] [Accepted: 07/05/2023] [Indexed: 09/19/2023]
Abstract
Machine-learning (ML) methods have gained prominence in the quantitative sciences. However, there are many known methodological pitfalls, including data leakage, in ML-based science. We systematically investigate reproducibility issues in ML-based science. Through a survey of literature in fields that have adopted ML methods, we find 17 fields where leakage has been found, collectively affecting 294 papers and, in some cases, leading to wildly overoptimistic conclusions. Based on our survey, we introduce a detailed taxonomy of eight types of leakage, ranging from textbook errors to open research problems. We propose that researchers test for each type of leakage by filling out model info sheets, which we introduce. Finally, we conduct a reproducibility study of civil war prediction, where complex ML models are believed to vastly outperform traditional statistical models such as logistic regression (LR). When the errors are corrected, complex ML models do not perform substantively better than decades-old LR models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sayash Kapoor
- Department of Computer Science and Center for Information Technology Policy, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08540, USA
| | - Arvind Narayanan
- Department of Computer Science and Center for Information Technology Policy, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08540, USA
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8
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Wu X, Deng H, Jian S, Chen H, Li Q, Gong R, Wu J. Global trends and hotspots in the digital therapeutics of autism spectrum disorders: a bibliometric analysis from 2002 to 2022. Front Psychiatry 2023; 14:1126404. [PMID: 37255688 PMCID: PMC10225518 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1126404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2022] [Accepted: 04/26/2023] [Indexed: 06/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a severe neurodevelopmental disorder that has become a major cause of disability in children. Digital therapeutics (DTx) delivers evidence-based therapeutic interventions to patients that are driven by software to prevent, manage, or treat a medical disorder or disease. This study objectively analyzed the current research status of global DTx in ASD from 2002 to 2022, aiming to explore the current global research status and trends in the field. Methods The Web of Science database was searched for articles about DTx in ASD from January 2002 to October 2022. CiteSpace was used to analyze the co-occurrence of keywords in literature, partnerships between authors, institutions, and countries, the sudden occurrence of keywords, clustering of keywords over time, and analysis of references, cited authors, and cited journals. Results A total of 509 articles were included. The most productive country and institution were the United States and Vanderbilt University. The largest contributing authors were Warren, Zachary, and Sarkar, Nilanjan. The most-cited journal was the Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. The most-cited and co-cited articles were Brian Scarselati (Robots for Use in Autism Research, 2012) and Ralph Adolphs (Abnormal processing of social information from faces in autism, 2001). "Artificial Intelligence," "machine learning," "Virtual Reality," and "eye tracking" were common new and cutting-edge trends in research on DTx in ASD. Discussion The use of DTx in ASD is developing rapidly and gaining the attention of researchers worldwide. The publications in this field have increased year by year, mainly concentrated in the developed countries, especially in the United States. Both Vanderbilt University and Yale University are very important institutions in the field. The researcher from Vanderbilt University, Warren and Zachary, his dynamics or achievements in the field is also more worth our attention. The application of new technologies such as virtual reality, machine learning, and eye-tracking in this field has driven the development of DTx on ASD and is currently a popular research topic. More cross-regional and cross-disciplinary collaborations are recommended to advance the development and availability of DTx.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuesen Wu
- College of Rehabilitation Medicine, Fujian University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
| | - Haiyin Deng
- College of Rehabilitation Medicine, Fujian University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
| | - Shiyun Jian
- College of Rehabilitation Medicine, Fujian University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
| | - Huian Chen
- College of Rehabilitation Medicine, Fujian University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
| | - Qing Li
- College of Rehabilitation Medicine, Fujian University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
| | - Ruiyu Gong
- College of Rehabilitation Medicine, Fujian University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
| | - Jingsong Wu
- College of Rehabilitation Medicine, Fujian University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
- Innovation and Transformation Center, Fujian University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
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Ahn YA, Moffitt JM, Tao Y, Custode S, Parlade M, Beaumont A, Cardona S, Hale M, Durocher J, Alessandri M, Shyu ML, Perry LK, Messinger DS. Objective Measurement of Social Gaze and Smile Behaviors in Children with Suspected Autism Spectrum Disorder During Administration of the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule, 2nd Edition. J Autism Dev Disord 2023:10.1007/s10803-023-05990-z. [PMID: 37103660 DOI: 10.1007/s10803-023-05990-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/09/2023] [Indexed: 04/28/2023]
Abstract
Best practice for the assessment of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) symptom severity relies on clinician ratings of the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule, 2nd Edition (ADOS-2), but the association of these ratings with objective measures of children's social gaze and smiling is unknown. Sixty-six preschool-age children (49 boys, M = 39.97 months, SD = 10.58) with suspected ASD (61 confirmed ASD) were administered the ADOS-2 and provided social affect calibrated severity scores (SA CSS). Children's social gaze and smiling during the ADOS-2, captured with a camera contained in eyeglasses worn by the examiner and parent, were obtained via a computer vision processing pipeline. Children who gazed more at their parents (p = .04) and whose gaze at their parents involved more smiling (p = .02) received lower social affect severity scores, indicating fewer social affect symptoms, adjusted R2 = .15, p = .003.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yeojin A Ahn
- Department of Psychology, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL, USA
| | | | - Yudong Tao
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL, USA
| | - Stephanie Custode
- Department of Psychology, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL, USA
| | - Meaghan Parlade
- Department of Psychology, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL, USA
| | - Amy Beaumont
- Department of Psychology, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL, USA
| | - Sandra Cardona
- Department of Psychology, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL, USA
| | - Melissa Hale
- Department of Psychology, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL, USA
| | - Jennifer Durocher
- Department of Psychology, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL, USA
| | | | - Mei-Ling Shyu
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL, USA
| | - Lynn K Perry
- Department of Psychology, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL, USA
| | - Daniel S Messinger
- Department of Psychology, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL, USA.
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL, USA.
- Departments of Pediatrics and Music Engineering, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL, USA.
- Department of Psychology, University of Miami, 5665 Ponce de Leon Blvd., P.O. Box 248185, Coral Gables, FL, 33124, USA.
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10
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Machine Learning-Based Blood RNA Signature for Diagnosis of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24032082. [PMID: 36768401 PMCID: PMC9916487 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24032082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2022] [Revised: 01/15/2023] [Accepted: 01/17/2023] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Early diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is crucial for providing appropriate treatments and parental guidance from an early age. Yet, ASD diagnosis is a lengthy process, in part due to the lack of reliable biomarkers. We recently applied RNA-sequencing of peripheral blood samples from 73 American and Israeli children with ASD and 26 neurotypically developing (NT) children to identify 10 genes with dysregulated blood expression levels in children with ASD. Machine learning (ML) analyzes data by computerized analytical model building and may be applied to building diagnostic tools based on the optimization of large datasets. Here, we present several ML-generated models, based on RNA expression datasets collected during our recently published RNA-seq study, as tentative tools for ASD diagnosis. Using the random forest classifier, two of our proposed models yield an accuracy of 82% in distinguishing children with ASD and NT children. Our proof-of-concept study requires refinement and independent validation by studies with far larger cohorts of children with ASD and NT children and should thus be perceived as starting point for building more accurate ML-based tools. Eventually, such tools may potentially provide an unbiased means to support the early diagnosis of ASD.
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11
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Data harnessing to nurture the human mind for a tailored approach to the child. Pediatr Res 2023; 93:357-365. [PMID: 36180585 DOI: 10.1038/s41390-022-02320-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2022] [Revised: 07/06/2022] [Accepted: 09/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Big data in pediatrics is an ocean of structured and unstructured data. Big data analysis helps to dive into the ocean of data to filter out information that can guide pediatricians in their decision making, precision diagnosis, and targeted therapy. In addition, big data and its analysis have helped in the surveillance, prevention, and performance of the health system. There has been a considerable amount of work in pediatrics that we have tried to highlight in this review and some of it has been already incorporated into the health system. Work in specialties of pediatrics is still forthcoming with the creation of a common data model and amalgamation of the huge "omics" database. The physicians entrusted with the care of children must be aware of the outcome so that they can play a role to ensure that big data algorithms have a clinically relevant effect in improving the health of their patients. They will apply the outcome of big data and its analysis in patient care through clinical algorithms or with the help of embedded clinical support alerts from the electronic medical records. IMPACT: Big data in pediatrics include structured, unstructured data, waveform data, biological, and social data. Big data analytics has unraveled significant information from these databases. This is changing how pediatricians will look at the body of available evidence and translate it into their clinical practice. Data harnessed so far is implemented in certain fields while in others it is in the process of development to become a clinical adjunct to the physician. Common databases are being prepared for future work. Diagnostic and prediction models when incorporated into the health system will guide the pediatrician to a targeted approach to diagnosis and therapy.
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Schulte-Rüther M, Kulvicius T, Stroth S, Wolff N, Roessner V, Marschik PB, Kamp-Becker I, Poustka L. Using machine learning to improve diagnostic assessment of ASD in the light of specific differential and co-occurring diagnoses. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2023; 64:16-26. [PMID: 35775235 DOI: 10.1111/jcpp.13650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Diagnostic assessment of ASD requires substantial clinical experience and is particularly difficult in the context of other disorders with behavioral symptoms in the domain of social interaction and communication. Observation measures such as the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS) do not take into account such co-occurring disorders. METHOD We used a well-characterized clinical sample of individuals (n = 1,251) that had received detailed outpatient evaluation for the presence of an ASD diagnosis (n = 481) and covered a range of additional overlapping diagnoses, including anxiety-related disorders (ANX, n = 122), ADHD (n = 439), and conduct disorder (CD, n = 194). We focused on ADOS module 3, covering the age range with particular high prevalence of such differential diagnoses. We used machine learning (ML) and trained random forest models on ADOS single item scores to predict a clinical best-estimate diagnosis of ASD in the context of these differential diagnoses (ASD vs. ANX, ASD vs. ADHD, ASD vs. CD), in the context of co-occurring ADHD, and an unspecific model using all available data. We employed nested cross-validation for an unbiased estimate of classification performance and made available a Webapp to showcase the results and feasibility for translation into clinical practice. RESULTS We obtained very good overall sensitivity (0.89-0.94) and specificity (0.87-0.89). In particular for individuals with less severe symptoms, our models showed increases of up to 35% in sensitivity or specificity. Furthermore, we analyzed item importance profiles of the ANX, ADHD, and CD models in comparison with the unspecific model revealing distinct patterns of importance for specific ADOS items with respect to differential diagnoses. CONCLUSIONS ML-based diagnostic classification may improve clinical decisions by utilizing the full range of information from detailed diagnostic observation instruments such as the ADOS. Importantly, this strategy might be of particular relevance for older children with less severe symptoms for whom the diagnostic decision is often particularly difficult.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Schulte-Rüther
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany.,Leibniz ScienceCampus Primate Cognition, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Tomas Kulvicius
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany.,Department for Computational Neuroscience, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Sanna Stroth
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Psychosomatics, and Psychotherapy, University Hospital of Marburg, Philipps-University Marburg, Marburg, Germany
| | - Nicole Wolff
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, TU Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Veit Roessner
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, TU Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Peter B Marschik
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany.,Leibniz ScienceCampus Primate Cognition, Göttingen, Germany.,Department of Women's and Children's Health, Center of Neurodevelopmental Disorders (KIND), Centre for Psychiatry Research, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.,iDN - interdisciplinary Developmental Neuroscience, Division of Phoniatrics, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Inge Kamp-Becker
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Psychosomatics, and Psychotherapy, University Hospital of Marburg, Philipps-University Marburg, Marburg, Germany
| | - Luise Poustka
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany.,Leibniz ScienceCampus Primate Cognition, Göttingen, Germany
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13
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Wolff N, Kohls G, Mack JT, Vahid A, Elster EM, Stroth S, Poustka L, Kuepper C, Roepke S, Kamp-Becker I, Roessner V. A data driven machine learning approach to differentiate between autism spectrum disorder and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder based on the best-practice diagnostic instruments for autism. Sci Rep 2022; 12:18744. [PMID: 36335178 PMCID: PMC9637125 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-21719-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2022] [Accepted: 09/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are two frequently co-occurring neurodevelopmental conditions that share certain symptomatology, including social difficulties. This presents practitioners with challenging (differential) diagnostic considerations, particularly in clinically more complex cases with co-occurring ASD and ADHD. Therefore, the primary aim of the current study was to apply a data-driven machine learning approach (support vector machine) to determine whether and which items from the best-practice clinical instruments for diagnosing ASD (ADOS, ADI-R) would best differentiate between four groups of individuals referred to specialized ASD clinics (i.e., ASD, ADHD, ASD + ADHD, ND = no diagnosis). We found that a subset of five features from both ADOS (clinical observation) and ADI-R (parental interview) reliably differentiated between ASD groups (ASD & ASD + ADHD) and non-ASD groups (ADHD & ND), and these features corresponded to the social-communication but also restrictive and repetitive behavior domains. In conclusion, the results of the current study support the idea that detecting ASD in individuals with suspected signs of the diagnosis, including those with co-occurring ADHD, is possible with considerably fewer items relative to the original ADOS/2 and ADI-R algorithms (i.e., 92% item reduction) while preserving relatively high diagnostic accuracy. Clinical implications and study limitations are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole Wolff
- grid.4488.00000 0001 2111 7257Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Faculty of Medicine, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Gregor Kohls
- grid.4488.00000 0001 2111 7257Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Faculty of Medicine, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Judith T. Mack
- grid.4488.00000 0001 2111 7257Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Faculty of Medicine, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany ,grid.4488.00000 0001 2111 7257 Institute and Policlinic of Occupational and Social Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Amirali Vahid
- grid.4488.00000 0001 2111 7257Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Faculty of Medicine, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Erik M. Elster
- grid.4488.00000 0001 2111 7257Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Faculty of Medicine, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Sanna Stroth
- grid.10253.350000 0004 1936 9756Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Psychosomatics and Psychotherapy, Medical Clinic, Philipps-University Marburg, Marburg, Germany
| | - Luise Poustka
- grid.411984.10000 0001 0482 5331Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry/Psychotherapy, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Charlotte Kuepper
- grid.7468.d0000 0001 2248 7639Institute of Psychology, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Stefan Roepke
- grid.6363.00000 0001 2218 4662Department of Psychiatry, Campus Benjamin Franklin, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Inge Kamp-Becker
- grid.10253.350000 0004 1936 9756Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Psychosomatics and Psychotherapy, Medical Clinic, Philipps-University Marburg, Marburg, Germany
| | - Veit Roessner
- grid.4488.00000 0001 2111 7257Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Faculty of Medicine, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
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14
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Cheong JK, Rajgor D, Lv Y, Chung KY, Tang YC, Cheng H. Noncoding RNome as Enabling Biomarkers for Precision Health. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms231810390. [PMID: 36142304 PMCID: PMC9499633 DOI: 10.3390/ijms231810390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2022] [Revised: 08/29/2022] [Accepted: 09/02/2022] [Indexed: 12/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs), in the form of structural, catalytic or regulatory RNAs, have emerged to be critical effectors of many biological processes. With the advent of new technologies, we have begun to appreciate how intracellular and circulatory ncRNAs elegantly choreograph the regulation of gene expression and protein function(s) in the cell. Armed with this knowledge, the clinical utility of ncRNAs as biomarkers has been recently tested in a wide range of human diseases. In this review, we examine how critical factors govern the success of interrogating ncRNA biomarker expression in liquid biopsies and tissues to enhance our current clinical management of human diseases, particularly in the context of cancer. We also discuss strategies to overcome key challenges that preclude ncRNAs from becoming standard-of-care clinical biomarkers, including sample pre-analytics standardization, data cross-validation with closer attention to discordant findings, as well as correlation with clinical outcomes. Although harnessing multi-modal information from disease-associated noncoding RNome (ncRNome) in biofluids or in tissues using artificial intelligence or machine learning is at the nascent stage, it will undoubtedly fuel the community adoption of precision population health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jit Kong Cheong
- Department of Biochemistry, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore (NUS), Singapore 117597, Singapore
- Precision Medicine Translational Research Programme, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore (NUS), Singapore 117597, Singapore
- NUS Centre for Cancer Research, Singapore 117599, Singapore
- Correspondence: (J.K.C.); (H.C.)
| | | | - Yang Lv
- Precision Medicine Translational Research Programme, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore (NUS), Singapore 117597, Singapore
| | | | | | - He Cheng
- MiRXES Lab, Singapore 138667, Singapore
- Correspondence: (J.K.C.); (H.C.)
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15
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Lahiri R, Nasir M, Kumar M, Kim SH, Bishop S, Lord C, Narayanan S. Interpersonal synchrony across vocal and lexical modalities in interactions involving children with autism spectrum disorder. JASA EXPRESS LETTERS 2022; 2:095202. [PMID: 36097603 PMCID: PMC9462442 DOI: 10.1121/10.0013421] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2022] [Accepted: 07/21/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Quantifying behavioral synchrony can inform clinical diagnosis, long-term monitoring, and individualised interventions in neuro-developmental disorders characterized by deficit in communication and social interaction, such as autism spectrum disorder. In this work, three different objective measures of interpersonal synchrony are evaluated across vocal and linguistic communication modalities. For vocal prosodic and spectral features, dynamic time warping distance and squared cosine distance of (feature-wise) complexity are used, and for lexical features, word mover's distance is applied to capture behavioral synchrony. It is shown that these interpersonal vocal and linguistic synchrony measures capture complementary information that helps in characterizing overall behavioral patterns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rimita Lahiri
- Signal Analysis and Interpretation Laboratory, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA
| | - Md Nasir
- Microsoft Artificial Intelligence for Good Research Lab, Redmond, Washington 98052, USA
| | - Manoj Kumar
- Amazon Alexa Artificial Intelligence, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, USA
| | - So Hyun Kim
- Center for Autism and the Developing Brain, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, New York 10065, USA
| | - Somer Bishop
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Francisco, California 94143, USA
| | - Catherine Lord
- Semel Institute of Neuroscience and Human Behavior, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90024, USA , , , , , ,
| | - Shrikanth Narayanan
- Signal Analysis and Interpretation Laboratory, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA
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16
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Sahu M, Gupta R, Ambasta RK, Kumar P. Artificial intelligence and machine learning in precision medicine: A paradigm shift in big data analysis. PROGRESS IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY AND TRANSLATIONAL SCIENCE 2022; 190:57-100. [PMID: 36008002 DOI: 10.1016/bs.pmbts.2022.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
The integration of artificial intelligence in precision medicine has revolutionized healthcare delivery. Precision medicine identifies the phenotype of particular patients with less-common responses to treatment. Recent studies have demonstrated that translational research exploring the convergence between artificial intelligence and precision medicine will help solve the most difficult challenges facing precision medicine. Here, we discuss different aspects of artificial intelligence in precision medicine that improve healthcare delivery. First, we discuss how artificial intelligence changes the landscape of precision medicine and the evolution of artificial intelligence in precision medicine. Second, we highlight the synergies between artificial intelligence and precision medicine and promises of artificial intelligence and precision medicine in healthcare delivery. Third, we briefly explain the promise of big data analytics and the integration of nanomaterials in precision medicine. Last, we highlight the challenges and opportunities of artificial intelligence in precision medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mehar Sahu
- Molecular Neuroscience and Functional Genomics Laboratory, Delhi Technological University (Formerly Delhi College of Engineering), Shahbad Daulatpur, Delhi, India
| | - Rohan Gupta
- Molecular Neuroscience and Functional Genomics Laboratory, Delhi Technological University (Formerly Delhi College of Engineering), Shahbad Daulatpur, Delhi, India
| | - Rashmi K Ambasta
- Molecular Neuroscience and Functional Genomics Laboratory, Delhi Technological University (Formerly Delhi College of Engineering), Shahbad Daulatpur, Delhi, India
| | - Pravir Kumar
- Molecular Neuroscience and Functional Genomics Laboratory, Delhi Technological University (Formerly Delhi College of Engineering), Shahbad Daulatpur, Delhi, India.
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17
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Identifying neuroanatomical and behavioral features for autism spectrum disorder diagnosis in children using machine learning. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0269773. [PMID: 35797364 PMCID: PMC9262216 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0269773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2021] [Accepted: 05/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder that can cause significant social, communication, and behavioral challenges. Diagnosis of ASD is complicated and there is an urgent need to identify ASD-associated biomarkers and features to help automate diagnostics and develop predictive ASD models. The present study adopts a novel evolutionary algorithm, the conjunctive clause evolutionary algorithm (CCEA), to select features most significant for distinguishing individuals with and without ASD, and is able to accommodate datasets having a small number of samples with a large number of feature measurements. The dataset is unique and comprises both behavioral and neuroimaging measurements from a total of 28 children from 7 to 14 years old. Potential biomarker candidates identified include brain volume, area, cortical thickness, and mean curvature in specific regions around the cingulate cortex, frontal cortex, and temporal-parietal junction, as well as behavioral features associated with theory of mind. A separate machine learning classifier (i.e., k-nearest neighbors algorithm) was used to validate the CCEA feature selection and for ASD prediction. Study findings demonstrate how machine learning tools might help move the needle on improving diagnostic and predictive models of ASD.
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18
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Rice CE, Carpenter LA, Morrier MJ, Lord C, DiRienzo M, Boan A, Skowyra C, Fusco A, Baio J, Esler A, Zahorodny W, Hobson N, Mars A, Thurm A, Bishop S, Wiggins LD. Defining in Detail and Evaluating Reliability of DSM-5 Criteria for Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) Among Children. J Autism Dev Disord 2022; 52:5308-5320. [PMID: 34981308 DOI: 10.1007/s10803-021-05377-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
This paper describes a process to define a comprehensive list of exemplars for seven core Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) diagnostic criteria for autism spectrum disorder (ASD), and report on interrater reliability in applying these exemplars to determine ASD case classification. Clinicians completed an iterative process to map specific exemplars from the CDC Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring (ADDM) Network criteria for ASD surveillance, DSM-5 text, and diagnostic assessments to each of the core DSM-5 ASD criteria. Clinicians applied the diagnostic exemplars to child behavioral descriptions in existing evaluation records to establish initial reliability standards and then for blinded clinician review in one site (phase 1) and for two ADDM Network surveillance years (phase 2). Interrater reliability for each of the DSM-5 diagnostic categories and overall ASD classification was high (defined as very good .60-.79 to excellent ≥ .80 Kappa values) across sex, race/ethnicity, and cognitive levels for both phases. Classification of DSM-5 ASD by mapping specific exemplars from evaluation records by a diverse group of clinician raters is feasible and reliable. This framework provides confidence in the consistency of prevalence classifications of ASD and may be further applied to improve consistency of ASD diagnoses in clinical settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- C E Rice
- Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA. .,Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA.
| | - L A Carpenter
- Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, USA
| | | | - C Lord
- University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - M DiRienzo
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - A Boan
- Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, USA
| | - C Skowyra
- Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - A Fusco
- Rutgers New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ, USA
| | - J Baio
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - A Esler
- University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - W Zahorodny
- Rutgers New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ, USA
| | - N Hobson
- Independent Consultant, Keller, TX, USA
| | - A Mars
- Hunterdon Healthcare System, Flemington, NJ, USA
| | - A Thurm
- National Institute of Mental Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - S Bishop
- University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - L D Wiggins
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
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19
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Integrating Graph Convolutional Networks (GCNNs) and Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) for Efficient Diagnosis of Autism. Artif Intell Med 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-031-09342-5_11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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20
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Kashef R. ECNN: Enhanced convolutional neural network for efficient diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder. COGN SYST RES 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cogsys.2021.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
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21
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Rehman IU, Sobnath D, Nasralla MM, Winnett M, Anwar A, Asif W, Sherazi HHR. Features of Mobile Apps for People with Autism in a Post COVID-19 Scenario: Current Status and Recommendations for Apps Using AI. Diagnostics (Basel) 2021; 11:1923. [PMID: 34679621 PMCID: PMC8535154 DOI: 10.3390/diagnostics11101923] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2021] [Revised: 10/11/2021] [Accepted: 10/14/2021] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
The new 'normal' defined during the COVID-19 pandemic has forced us to re-assess how people with special needs thrive in these unprecedented conditions, such as those with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). These changing/challenging conditions have instigated us to revisit the usage of telehealth services to improve the quality of life for people with ASD. This study aims to identify mobile applications that suit the needs of such individuals. This work focuses on identifying features of a number of highly-rated mobile applications (apps) that are designed to assist people with ASD, specifically those features that use Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies. In this study, 250 mobile apps have been retrieved using keywords such as autism, autism AI, and autistic. Among 250 apps, 46 were identified after filtering out irrelevant apps based on defined elimination criteria such as ASD common users, medical staff, and non-medically trained people interacting with people with ASD. In order to review common functionalities and features, 25 apps were downloaded and analysed based on eye tracking, facial expression analysis, use of 3D cartoons, haptic feedback, engaging interface, text-to-speech, use of Applied Behaviour Analysis therapy, Augmentative and Alternative Communication techniques, among others were also deconstructed. As a result, software developers and healthcare professionals can consider the identified features in designing future support tools for autistic people. This study hypothesises that by studying these current features, further recommendations of how existing applications for ASD people could be enhanced using AI for (1) progress tracking, (2) personalised content delivery, (3) automated reasoning, (4) image recognition, and (5) Natural Language Processing (NLP). This paper follows the PRISMA methodology, which involves a set of recommendations for reporting systematic reviews and meta-analyses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ikram Ur Rehman
- School of Computing and Engineering, University of West London, London W5 5RF, UK; (I.U.R.); (M.W.); (A.A.); (W.A.)
| | - Drishty Sobnath
- Faculty of Business, Law and Digital Technologies, Solent University, Southampton SO14 0YN, UK;
| | - Moustafa M. Nasralla
- Department of Communications and Networks Engineering, Prince Sultan University, Riyadh 11586, Saudi Arabia;
| | - Maria Winnett
- School of Computing and Engineering, University of West London, London W5 5RF, UK; (I.U.R.); (M.W.); (A.A.); (W.A.)
| | - Aamir Anwar
- School of Computing and Engineering, University of West London, London W5 5RF, UK; (I.U.R.); (M.W.); (A.A.); (W.A.)
| | - Waqar Asif
- School of Computing and Engineering, University of West London, London W5 5RF, UK; (I.U.R.); (M.W.); (A.A.); (W.A.)
| | - Hafiz Husnain Raza Sherazi
- School of Computing and Engineering, University of West London, London W5 5RF, UK; (I.U.R.); (M.W.); (A.A.); (W.A.)
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22
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Vélez JI. Machine Learning based Psychology: Advocating for A Data-Driven Approach. Int J Psychol Res (Medellin) 2021; 14:6-11. [PMID: 34306575 PMCID: PMC8297577 DOI: 10.21500/20112084.5365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Jorge I Vélez
- Universidad del Norte, Barranquilla, Colombia. Universidad del Norte Universidad del Norte Barranquilla Colombia
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23
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Feng P, Chen Z, Becker B, Liu X, Zhou F, He Q, Qiu J, Lei X, Chen H, Feng T. Predisposing Variations in Fear-Related Brain Networks Prospectively Predict Fearful Feelings during the 2019 Coronavirus (COVID-19) Pandemic. Cereb Cortex 2021; 32:540-553. [PMID: 34297795 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhab232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2021] [Revised: 06/20/2021] [Accepted: 06/21/2021] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
The novel coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic has led to a surge in mental distress and fear-related disorders, including posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Fear-related disorders are characterized by dysregulations in fear and the associated neural pathways. In the present study, we examined whether individual variations in the fear neural connectome can predict fear-related symptoms during the COVID-19 pandemic. Using machine learning algorithms and back-propagation artificial neural network (BP-ANN) deep learning algorithms, we demonstrated that the intrinsic neural connectome before the COVID-19 pandemic could predict who would develop high fear-related symptoms at the peak of the COVID-19 pandemic in China (Accuracy rate = 75.00%, Sensitivity rate = 65.83%, Specificity rate = 84.17%). More importantly, prediction models could accurately predict the level of fear-related symptoms during the COVID-19 pandemic by using the prepandemic connectome state, in which the functional connectivity of lvmPFC (left ventromedial prefrontal cortex)-rdlPFC (right dorsolateral), rdACC (right dorsal anterior cingulate cortex)-left insula, lAMY (left amygdala)-lHip (left hippocampus) and lAMY-lsgACC (left subgenual cingulate cortex) was contributed to the robust prediction. The current study capitalized on prepandemic data of the neural connectome of fear to predict participants who would develop high fear-related symptoms in COVID-19 pandemic, suggesting that individual variations in the intrinsic organization of the fear circuits represent a neurofunctional marker that renders subjects vulnerable to experience high levels of fear during the COVID-19 pandemic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pan Feng
- Faculty of Psychology, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China.,Key Laboratory of Cognition and Personality, Ministry of Education, Chongqing 400715, China
| | - Zhiyi Chen
- Faculty of Psychology, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China.,Key Laboratory of Cognition and Personality, Ministry of Education, Chongqing 400715, China
| | - Benjamin Becker
- Center for Information in Medicine, School of Life Science and Technology, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu 611731, China.,The Clinical Hospital of Chengdu Brain Science Institute, MOE Key Laboratory for Neuroinformation, Chengdu 611731, China
| | - Xiqin Liu
- Center for Information in Medicine, School of Life Science and Technology, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu 611731, China.,The Clinical Hospital of Chengdu Brain Science Institute, MOE Key Laboratory for Neuroinformation, Chengdu 611731, China
| | - Feng Zhou
- Center for Information in Medicine, School of Life Science and Technology, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu 611731, China.,The Clinical Hospital of Chengdu Brain Science Institute, MOE Key Laboratory for Neuroinformation, Chengdu 611731, China
| | - Qinghua He
- Faculty of Psychology, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China.,Key Laboratory of Cognition and Personality, Ministry of Education, Chongqing 400715, China
| | - Jiang Qiu
- Faculty of Psychology, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China.,Key Laboratory of Cognition and Personality, Ministry of Education, Chongqing 400715, China
| | - Xu Lei
- Faculty of Psychology, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China.,Key Laboratory of Cognition and Personality, Ministry of Education, Chongqing 400715, China
| | - Hong Chen
- Faculty of Psychology, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China.,Key Laboratory of Cognition and Personality, Ministry of Education, Chongqing 400715, China
| | - Tingyong Feng
- Faculty of Psychology, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China.,Key Laboratory of Cognition and Personality, Ministry of Education, Chongqing 400715, China
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24
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Ardulov V, Martinez VR, Somandepalli K, Zheng S, Salzman E, Lord C, Bishop S, Narayanan S. Robust diagnostic classification via Q-learning. Sci Rep 2021; 11:11730. [PMID: 34083579 PMCID: PMC8175431 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-90000-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2021] [Accepted: 04/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Machine learning (ML) models have demonstrated the power of utilizing clinical instruments to provide tools for domain experts in gaining additional insights toward complex clinical diagnoses. In this context these tools desire two additional properties: interpretability, being able to audit and understand the decision function, and robustness, being able to assign the correct label in spite of missing or noisy inputs. This work formulates diagnostic classification as a decision-making process and utilizes Q-learning to build classifiers that meet the aforementioned desired criteria. As an exemplary task, we simulate the process of differentiating Autism Spectrum Disorder from Attention Deficit-Hyperactivity Disorder in verbal school aged children. This application highlights how reinforcement learning frameworks can be utilized to train more robust classifiers by jointly learning to maximize diagnostic accuracy while minimizing the amount of information required.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Shuting Zheng
- University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, USA
| | - Emma Salzman
- University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, USA
| | | | - Somer Bishop
- University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, USA
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25
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Erden YJ, Hummerstone H, Rainey S. Automating autism assessment: What AI can bring to the diagnostic process. J Eval Clin Pract 2021; 27:485-490. [PMID: 33331145 PMCID: PMC8246862 DOI: 10.1111/jep.13527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2020] [Revised: 11/03/2020] [Accepted: 11/13/2020] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
This paper examines the use of artificial intelligence (AI) for the diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder (ASD, hereafter autism). In so doing we examine some problems in existing diagnostic processes and criteria, including issues of bias and interpretation, and on concepts like the 'double empathy problem'. We then consider how novel applications of AI might contribute to these contexts. We're focussed specifically on adult diagnostic procedures as childhood diagnosis is already well covered in the literature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasemin J Erden
- Department of Philosophy, University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands
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26
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Souza PVDC, Guimaraes AJ, Araujo VS, Lughofer E. An intelligent Bayesian hybrid approach to help autism diagnosis. Soft comput 2021; 25:9163-9183. [PMID: 34720705 PMCID: PMC8550741 DOI: 10.1007/s00500-021-05877-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
This paper proposes a Bayesian hybrid approach based on neural networks and fuzzy systems to construct fuzzy rules to assist experts in detecting features and relations regarding the presence of autism in human beings. The model proposed in this paper works with a database generated through mobile devices that deals with diagnoses of autistic characteristics in human beings who answer a series of questions in a mobile application. The Bayesian model works with the construction of Gaussian fuzzy neurons in the first and logical neurons in the second layer of the model to form a fuzzy inference system connected to an artificial neural network that activates a robust output neuron. The new fuzzy neural network model was compared with traditional state-of-the-art machine learning models based on high-dimensional based on real-world data sets comprising the autism occurrence in children, adults, and adolescents. The results (97.73- Children/94.32-Adolescent/97.28-Adult) demonstrate the efficiency of our new method in determining children, adolescents, and adults with autistic traits (being among the top performers among all ML models tested), can generate knowledge about the dataset through fuzzy rules.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Edwin Lughofer
- Department of Knowledge Based Mathematical Systems, Johannes Kepler University, Linz, Austria
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27
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Vélez JI, Samper LA, Arcos-Holzinger M, Espinosa LG, Isaza-Ruget MA, Lopera F, Arcos-Burgos M. A Comprehensive Machine Learning Framework for the Exact Prediction of the Age of Onset in Familial and Sporadic Alzheimer's Disease. Diagnostics (Basel) 2021; 11:887. [PMID: 34067584 PMCID: PMC8156402 DOI: 10.3390/diagnostics11050887] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2021] [Revised: 04/28/2021] [Accepted: 04/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Machine learning (ML) algorithms are widely used to develop predictive frameworks. Accurate prediction of Alzheimer's disease (AD) age of onset (ADAOO) is crucial to investigate potential treatments, follow-up, and therapeutic interventions. Although genetic and non-genetic factors affecting ADAOO were elucidated by other research groups and ours, the comprehensive and sequential application of ML to provide an exact estimation of the actual ADAOO, instead of a high-confidence-interval ADAOO that may fall, remains to be explored. Here, we assessed the performance of ML algorithms for predicting ADAOO using two AD cohorts with early-onset familial AD and with late-onset sporadic AD, combining genetic and demographic variables. Performance of ML algorithms was assessed using the root mean squared error (RMSE), the R-squared (R2), and the mean absolute error (MAE) with a 10-fold cross-validation procedure. For predicting ADAOO in familial AD, boosting-based ML algorithms performed the best. In the sporadic cohort, boosting-based ML algorithms performed best in the training data set, while regularization methods best performed for unseen data. ML algorithms represent a feasible alternative to accurately predict ADAOO with little human intervention. Future studies may include predicting the speed of cognitive decline in our cohorts using ML.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jorge I. Vélez
- Department of Industrial Engineering, Universidad del Norte, Barranquilla 081007, Colombia
| | - Luiggi A. Samper
- Department of Public Health, Universidad del Norte, Barranquilla 081007, Colombia;
| | - Mauricio Arcos-Holzinger
- Grupo de Investigación en Psiquiatría (GIPSI), Departamento de Psiquiatría, Instituto de Investigaciones Médicas, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellín 050010, Colombia;
| | - Lady G. Espinosa
- INPAC Research Group, Fundación Universitaria Sanitas, Bogotá 111321, Colombia; (L.G.E.); (M.A.I.-R.)
| | - Mario A. Isaza-Ruget
- INPAC Research Group, Fundación Universitaria Sanitas, Bogotá 111321, Colombia; (L.G.E.); (M.A.I.-R.)
| | - Francisco Lopera
- Neuroscience Research Group, University of Antioquia, Medellín 050010, Colombia;
| | - Mauricio Arcos-Burgos
- Grupo de Investigación en Psiquiatría (GIPSI), Departamento de Psiquiatría, Instituto de Investigaciones Médicas, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellín 050010, Colombia;
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28
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Romero-García R, Martínez-Tomás R, Pozo P, de la Paz F, Sarriá E. Q-CHAT-NAO: A robotic approach to autism screening in toddlers. J Biomed Inform 2021; 118:103797. [PMID: 33933653 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbi.2021.103797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2020] [Revised: 04/24/2021] [Accepted: 04/26/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
The use of humanoid robots as assistants in therapy processes is not new. Several projects in the past several years have achieved promising results when combining human-robot interaction with standard techniques. Moreover, there are multiple screening systems for autism; one of the most used systems is the Quantitative Checklist for Autism in Toddlers (Q-CHAT-10), which includes ten questions to be answered by the parents or caregivers of a child. We present Q-CHAT-NAO, an observation-based autism screening system supported by a NAO robot. It includes the six questions of the Q-CHAT-10 that can be adapted to work in a robotic context; unlike the original system, it obtains information from the toddler instead of from an indirect source. The detection results obtained after applying machine learning models to the six questions in the Autistic Spectrum Disorder Screening Data for Toddlers dataset were almost equivalent to those of the original version with ten questions. These findings indicate that the Q-CHAT-NAO could be a screening option that would exploit all the benefits related to human-robot interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rubén Romero-García
- Department of Artificial Intelligence, School of Computer Science, UNED, 28040 Madrid, Spain.
| | - Rafael Martínez-Tomás
- Department of Artificial Intelligence, School of Computer Science, UNED, 28040 Madrid, Spain; Joint Research Institute UNED and Health Institute Carlos III (IMIENS), 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Pilar Pozo
- Department of Methodology of Behavioral Sciences, Faculty of Psychology, UNED, 28040 Madrid, Spain; Joint Research Institute UNED and Health Institute Carlos III (IMIENS), 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Félix de la Paz
- Department of Artificial Intelligence, School of Computer Science, UNED, 28040 Madrid, Spain; Joint Research Institute UNED and Health Institute Carlos III (IMIENS), 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Encarnación Sarriá
- Department of Methodology of Behavioral Sciences, Faculty of Psychology, UNED, 28040 Madrid, Spain; Joint Research Institute UNED and Health Institute Carlos III (IMIENS), 28040 Madrid, Spain
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29
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Use of Machine Learning to Investigate the Quantitative Checklist for Autism in Toddlers (Q-CHAT) towards Early Autism Screening. Diagnostics (Basel) 2021; 11:diagnostics11030574. [PMID: 33810146 PMCID: PMC8004748 DOI: 10.3390/diagnostics11030574] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2021] [Revised: 03/16/2021] [Accepted: 03/19/2021] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
In the past two decades, several screening instruments were developed to detect toddlers who may be autistic both in clinical and unselected samples. Among others, the Quantitative CHecklist for Autism in Toddlers (Q-CHAT) is a quantitative and normally distributed measure of autistic traits that demonstrates good psychometric properties in different settings and cultures. Recently, machine learning (ML) has been applied to behavioral science to improve the classification performance of autism screening and diagnostic tools, but mainly in children, adolescents, and adults. In this study, we used ML to investigate the accuracy and reliability of the Q-CHAT in discriminating young autistic children from those without. Five different ML algorithms (random forest (RF), naïve Bayes (NB), support vector machine (SVM), logistic regression (LR), and K-nearest neighbors (KNN)) were applied to investigate the complete set of Q-CHAT items. Our results showed that ML achieved an overall accuracy of 90%, and the SVM was the most effective, being able to classify autism with 95% accuracy. Furthermore, using the SVM–recursive feature elimination (RFE) approach, we selected a subset of 14 items ensuring 91% accuracy, while 83% accuracy was obtained from the 3 best discriminating items in common to ours and the previously reported Q-CHAT-10. This evidence confirms the high performance and cross-cultural validity of the Q-CHAT, and supports the application of ML to create shorter and faster versions of the instrument, maintaining high classification accuracy, to be used as a quick, easy, and high-performance tool in primary-care settings.
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30
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Advani D, Sharma S, Kumari S, Ambasta RK, Kumar P. Precision Oncology, Signaling and Anticancer Agents in Cancer Therapeutics. Anticancer Agents Med Chem 2021; 22:433-468. [PMID: 33687887 DOI: 10.2174/1871520621666210308101029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2020] [Revised: 01/05/2021] [Accepted: 01/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The global alliance for genomics and healthcare facilities provides innovational solutions to expedite research and clinical practices for complex and incurable health conditions. Precision oncology is an emerging field explicitly tailored to facilitate cancer diagnosis, prevention and treatment based on patients' genetic profile. Advancements in "omics" techniques, next-generation sequencing, artificial intelligence and clinical trial designs provide a platform for assessing the efficacy and safety of combination therapies and diagnostic procedures. METHOD Data were collected from Pubmed and Google scholar using keywords: "Precision medicine", "precision medicine and cancer", "anticancer agents in precision medicine" and reviewed comprehensively. RESULTS Personalized therapeutics including immunotherapy, cancer vaccines, serve as a groundbreaking solution for cancer treatment. Herein, we take a measurable view of precision therapies and novel diagnostic approaches targeting cancer treatment. The contemporary applications of precision medicine have also been described along with various hurdles identified in the successful establishment of precision therapeutics. CONCLUSION This review highlights the key breakthroughs related to immunotherapies, targeted anticancer agents, and target interventions related to cancer signaling mechanisms. The success story of this field in context to drug resistance, safety, patient survival and in improving quality of life is yet to be elucidated. We conclude that, in the near future, the field of individualized treatments may truly revolutionize the nature of cancer patient care.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dia Advani
- Molecular Neuroscience and Functional Genomics Laboratory Shahbad Daulatpur, Bawana Road, Delhi 110042. India
| | - Sudhanshu Sharma
- Molecular Neuroscience and Functional Genomics Laboratory Shahbad Daulatpur, Bawana Road, Delhi 110042. India
| | - Smita Kumari
- Molecular Neuroscience and Functional Genomics Laboratory Shahbad Daulatpur, Bawana Road, Delhi 110042. India
| | - Rashmi K Ambasta
- Molecular Neuroscience and Functional Genomics Laboratory Shahbad Daulatpur, Bawana Road, Delhi 110042. India
| | - Pravir Kumar
- Molecular Neuroscience and Functional Genomics Laboratory Shahbad Daulatpur, Bawana Road, Delhi 110042. India
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31
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Hewitson L, Mathews JA, Devlin M, Schutte C, Lee J, German DC. Blood biomarker discovery for autism spectrum disorder: A proteomic analysis. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0246581. [PMID: 33626076 PMCID: PMC7904196 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0246581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2020] [Accepted: 01/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by deficits in social communication and social interaction and restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or activities. Given the lack of specific pharmacological therapy for ASD and the clinical heterogeneity of the disorder, current biomarker research efforts are geared mainly toward identifying markers for determining ASD risk or for assisting with a diagnosis. A wide range of putative biological markers for ASD is currently being investigated. Proteomic analyses indicate that the levels of many proteins in plasma/serum are altered in ASD, suggesting that a panel of proteins may provide a blood biomarker for ASD. Serum samples from 76 boys with ASD and 78 typically developing (TD) boys, 18 months-8 years of age, were analyzed to identify possible early biological markers for ASD. Proteomic analysis of serum was performed using SomaLogic’s SOMAScanTM assay 1.3K platform. A total of 1,125 proteins were analyzed. There were 86 downregulated proteins and 52 upregulated proteins in ASD (FDR < 0.05). Combining three different algorithms, we found a panel of 9 proteins that identified ASD with an area under the curve (AUC) = 0.8599±0.0640, with specificity and sensitivity of 0.8217±0.1178 and 0.835±0.1176, respectively. All 9 proteins were significantly different in ASD compared with TD boys, and were significantly correlated with ASD severity as measured by ADOS total scores. Using machine learning methods, a panel of serum proteins was identified that may be useful as a blood biomarker for ASD in boys. Further verification of the protein biomarker panel with independent test sets is warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Hewitson
- The Johnson Center for Child Health and Development, Austin, TX, United States of America
| | - Jeremy A Mathews
- Departments of Mathematical Sciences and Biological Sciences, Bioinformatics & Computational Biology Program, University of Texas at Dallas, Dallas, TX, United States of America
| | - Morgan Devlin
- The Johnson Center for Child Health and Development, Austin, TX, United States of America
| | - Claire Schutte
- The Johnson Center for Child Health and Development, Austin, TX, United States of America
| | - Jeon Lee
- Lyda Hill Department of Bioinformatics, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, United States of America
| | - Dwight C German
- Department of Psychiatry, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, United States of America
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32
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Cavallo A, Romeo L, Ansuini C, Battaglia F, Nobili L, Pontil M, Panzeri S, Becchio C. Identifying the signature of prospective motor control in children with autism. Sci Rep 2021; 11:3165. [PMID: 33542311 PMCID: PMC7862688 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-82374-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2020] [Accepted: 01/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Failure to develop prospective motor control has been proposed to be a core phenotypic marker of autism spectrum disorders (ASD). However, whether genuine differences in prospective motor control permit discriminating between ASD and non-ASD profiles over and above individual differences in motor output remains unclear. Here, we combined high precision measures of hand movement kinematics and rigorous machine learning analyses to determine the true power of prospective movement data to differentiate children with autism and typically developing children. Our results show that while movement is unique to each individual, variations in the kinematic patterning of sequential grasping movements genuinely differentiate children with autism from typically developing children. These findings provide quantitative evidence for a prospective motor control impairment in autism and indicate the potential to draw inferences about autism on the basis of movement kinematics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Cavallo
- Cognition, Motion and Neuroscience Laboratory, Center for Human Technologies, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Genoa, Italy.,Department of Psychology, Università degli Studi di Torino, Turin, Italy
| | - Luca Romeo
- Department of Information Engineering, Università Politecnica delle Marche, Ancona, Italy.,Computational Statistics and Machine Learning Laboratory, Center for Human Technologies, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Genoa, Italy
| | - Caterina Ansuini
- Cognition, Motion and Neuroscience Laboratory, Center for Human Technologies, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Genoa, Italy
| | - Francesca Battaglia
- Cognition, Motion and Neuroscience Laboratory, Center for Human Technologies, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Genoa, Italy.,Child Neuropsychiatric Unit, IRCCS Istituto G. Gaslini, Genoa, Italy
| | - Lino Nobili
- Child Neuropsychiatric Unit, IRCCS Istituto G. Gaslini, Genoa, Italy.,DINOGMI Department of Neurosciences, Rehabilitation, Ophthalmology, Genetics and Maternal and Children's Sciences, Università degli Studi di Genova, Genoa, Italy
| | - Massimiliano Pontil
- Computational Statistics and Machine Learning Laboratory, Center for Human Technologies, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Genoa, Italy
| | - Stefano Panzeri
- Neural Computational Laboratory, Center for Human Technologies, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Genoa, Italy
| | - Cristina Becchio
- Cognition, Motion and Neuroscience Laboratory, Center for Human Technologies, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Genoa, Italy.
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33
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Toward Novel Tools for Autism Identification: Fusing Computational and Clinical Expertise. J Autism Dev Disord 2021; 51:4003-4012. [PMID: 33417138 PMCID: PMC7791904 DOI: 10.1007/s10803-020-04857-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/19/2020] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Barriers to identifying autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in young children in a timely manner have led to calls for novel screening and assessment strategies. Combining computational methods with clinical expertise presents an opportunity for identifying patterns within large clinical datasets that can inform new assessment paradigms. The present study describes an analytic approach used to identify key features predictive of ASD in young children, drawn from large amounts of data from comprehensive diagnostic evaluations. A team of expert clinicians used these predictive features to design a set of assessment activities allowing for observation of these core behaviors. The resulting brief assessment underlies several novel approaches to the identification of ASD that are the focus of ongoing research.
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34
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Washington P, Leblanc E, Dunlap K, Penev Y, Varma M, Jung JY, Chrisman B, Sun MW, Stockham N, Paskov KM, Kalantarian H, Voss C, Haber N, Wall DP. Selection of trustworthy crowd workers for telemedical diagnosis of pediatric autism spectrum disorder. PACIFIC SYMPOSIUM ON BIOCOMPUTING. PACIFIC SYMPOSIUM ON BIOCOMPUTING 2021; 26:14-25. [PMID: 33691000 PMCID: PMC7958981] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022]
Abstract
Crowd-powered telemedicine has the potential to revolutionize healthcare, especially during times that require remote access to care. However, sharing private health data with strangers from around the world is not compatible with data privacy standards, requiring a stringent filtration process to recruit reliable and trustworthy workers who can go through the proper training and security steps. The key challenge, then, is to identify capable, trustworthy, and reliable workers through high-fidelity evaluation tasks without exposing any sensitive patient data during the evaluation process. We contribute a set of experimentally validated metrics for assessing the trustworthiness and reliability of crowd workers tasked with providing behavioral feature tags to unstructured videos of children with autism and matched neurotypical controls. The workers are blinded to diagnosis and blinded to the goal of using the features to diagnose autism. These behavioral labels are fed as input to a previously validated binary logistic regression classifier for detecting autism cases using categorical feature vectors. While the metrics do not incorporate any ground truth labels of child diagnosis, linear regression using the 3 correlative metrics as input can predict the mean probability of the correct class of each worker with a mean average error of 7.51% for performance on the same set of videos and 10.93% for performance on a distinct balanced video set with different children. These results indicate that crowd workers can be recruited for performance based largely on behavioral metrics on a crowdsourced task, enabling an affordable way to filter crowd workforces into a trustworthy and reliable diagnostic workforce.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Washington
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Emilie Leblanc
- Department of Pediatrics (Systems Medicine), Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA, 94305, USA,Department of Biomedical Data Science, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Kaitlyn Dunlap
- Department of Pediatrics (Systems Medicine), Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA, 94305, USA,Department of Biomedical Data Science, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Yordan Penev
- Department of Pediatrics (Systems Medicine), Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA, 94305, USA,Department of Biomedical Data Science, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Maya Varma
- Department of Computer Science, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Jae-Yoon Jung
- Department of Pediatrics (Systems Medicine), Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA, 94305, USA,Department of Biomedical Data Science, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Brianna Chrisman
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Min Woo Sun
- Department of Biomedical Data Science, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Nathaniel Stockham
- Department of Neuroscience, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Kelley Marie Paskov
- Department of Biomedical Data Science, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Haik Kalantarian
- Department of Pediatrics (Systems Medicine), Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA, 94305, USA,Department of Biomedical Data Science, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Catalin Voss
- Department of Computer Science, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Nick Haber
- School of Education, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Dennis P. Wall
- Department of Pediatrics (Systems Medicine), Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA, 94305, USA,Department of Biomedical Data Science, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA, 94305, USA
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35
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Leblanc E, Washington P, Varma M, Dunlap K, Penev Y, Kline A, Wall DP. Feature replacement methods enable reliable home video analysis for machine learning detection of autism. Sci Rep 2020; 10:21245. [PMID: 33277527 PMCID: PMC7719177 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-76874-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2020] [Accepted: 11/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Autism Spectrum Disorder is a neuropsychiatric condition affecting 53 million children worldwide and for which early diagnosis is critical to the outcome of behavior therapies. Machine learning applied to features manually extracted from readily accessible videos (e.g., from smartphones) has the potential to scale this diagnostic process. However, nearly unavoidable variability in video quality can lead to missing features that degrade algorithm performance. To manage this uncertainty, we evaluated the impact of missing values and feature imputation methods on two previously published autism detection classifiers, trained on standard-of-care instrument scoresheets and tested on ratings of 140 children videos from YouTube. We compare the baseline method of listwise deletion to classic univariate and multivariate techniques. We also introduce a feature replacement method that, based on a score, selects a feature from an expanded dataset to fill-in the missing value. The replacement feature selected can be identical for all records (general) or automatically adjusted to the record considered (dynamic). Our results show that general and dynamic feature replacement methods achieve a higher performance than classic univariate and multivariate methods, supporting the hypothesis that algorithmic management can maintain the fidelity of video-based diagnostics in the face of missing values and variable video quality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emilie Leblanc
- Department of Pediatrics, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Peter Washington
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Maya Varma
- Department of Computer Science, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Kaitlyn Dunlap
- Department of Pediatrics, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA, 94305, USA
- Department of Biomedical Data Science, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Yordan Penev
- Department of Pediatrics, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA, 94305, USA
- Department of Biomedical Data Science, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Aaron Kline
- Department of Pediatrics, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA, 94305, USA
- Department of Biomedical Data Science, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Dennis P Wall
- Department of Pediatrics, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA, 94305, USA.
- Department of Biomedical Data Science, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA, 94305, USA.
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences (by courtesy), Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA, 94305, USA.
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36
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Ilan Y. Second-Generation Digital Health Platforms: Placing the Patient at the Center and Focusing on Clinical Outcomes. Front Digit Health 2020; 2:569178. [PMID: 34713042 PMCID: PMC8521820 DOI: 10.3389/fdgth.2020.569178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2020] [Accepted: 10/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Artificial intelligence (AI) digital health systems have drawn much attention over the last decade. However, their implementation into medical practice occurs at a much slower pace than expected. This paper reviews some of the achievements of first-generation AI systems, and the barriers facing their implementation into medical practice. The development of second-generation AI systems is discussed with a focus on overcoming some of these obstacles. Second-generation systems are aimed at focusing on a single subject and on improving patients' clinical outcomes. A personalized closed-loop system designed to improve end-organ function and the patient's response to chronic therapies is presented. The system introduces a platform which implements a personalized therapeutic regimen and introduces quantifiable individualized-variability patterns into its algorithm. The platform is designed to achieve a clinically meaningful endpoint by ensuring that chronic therapies will have sustainable effect while overcoming compensatory mechanisms associated with disease progression and drug resistance. Second-generation systems are expected to assist patients and providers in adopting and implementing of these systems into everyday care.
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37
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Ruan M, Webster PJ, Li X, Wang S. Deep Neural Network Reveals the World of Autism From a First-Person Perspective. Autism Res 2020; 14:333-342. [PMID: 32869953 DOI: 10.1002/aur.2376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2020] [Revised: 07/26/2020] [Accepted: 07/27/2020] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
People with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) show atypical attention to social stimuli and aberrant gaze when viewing images of the physical world. However, it is unknown how they perceive the world from a first-person perspective. In this study, we used machine learning to classify photos taken in three different categories (people, indoors, and outdoors) as either having been taken by individuals with ASD or by peers without ASD. Our classifier effectively discriminated photos from all three categories, but was particularly successful at classifying photos of people with >80% accuracy. Importantly, visualization of our model revealed critical features that led to successful discrimination and showed that our model adopted a strategy similar to that of ASD experts. Furthermore, for the first time we showed that photos taken by individuals with ASD contained less salient objects, especially in the central visual field. Notably, our model outperformed classification of these photos by ASD experts. Together, we demonstrate an effective and novel method that is capable of discerning photos taken by individuals with ASD and revealing aberrant visual attention in ASD from a unique first-person perspective. Our method may in turn provide an objective measure for evaluations of individuals with ASD. LAY SUMMARY: People with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) demonstrate atypical visual attention to social stimuli. However, it remains largely unclear how they perceive the world from a first-person perspective. In this study, we employed a deep learning approach to analyze a unique dataset of photos taken by people with and without ASD. Our computer modeling was not only able to discern which photos were taken by individuals with ASD, outperforming ASD experts, but importantly, it revealed critical features that led to successful discrimination, revealing aspects of atypical visual attention in ASD from their first-person perspective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mindi Ruan
- Lane Department of Computer Science and Electrical Engineering, West Virginia University, Morgantown, West Virginia, USA
| | - Paula J Webster
- Department of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering and Rockefeller Neuroscience Institute, West Virginia University, Morgantown, West Virginia, USA
| | - Xin Li
- Lane Department of Computer Science and Electrical Engineering, West Virginia University, Morgantown, West Virginia, USA
| | - Shuo Wang
- Department of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering and Rockefeller Neuroscience Institute, West Virginia University, Morgantown, West Virginia, USA
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Washington P, Park N, Srivastava P, Voss C, Kline A, Varma M, Tariq Q, Kalantarian H, Schwartz J, Patnaik R, Chrisman B, Stockham N, Paskov K, Haber N, Wall DP. Data-Driven Diagnostics and the Potential of Mobile Artificial Intelligence for Digital Therapeutic Phenotyping in Computational Psychiatry. BIOLOGICAL PSYCHIATRY. COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE AND NEUROIMAGING 2020; 5:759-769. [PMID: 32085921 PMCID: PMC7292741 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpsc.2019.11.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2019] [Revised: 11/24/2019] [Accepted: 11/25/2019] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Data science and digital technologies have the potential to transform diagnostic classification. Digital technologies enable the collection of big data, and advances in machine learning and artificial intelligence enable scalable, rapid, and automated classification of medical conditions. In this review, we summarize and categorize various data-driven methods for diagnostic classification. In particular, we focus on autism as an example of a challenging disorder due to its highly heterogeneous nature. We begin by describing the frontier of data science methods for the neuropsychiatry of autism. We discuss early signs of autism as defined by existing pen-and-paper-based diagnostic instruments and describe data-driven feature selection techniques for determining the behaviors that are most salient for distinguishing children with autism from neurologically typical children. We then describe data-driven detection techniques, particularly computer vision and eye tracking, that provide a means of quantifying behavioral differences between cases and controls. We also describe methods of preserving the privacy of collected videos and prior efforts of incorporating humans in the diagnostic loop. Finally, we summarize existing digital therapeutic interventions that allow for data capture and longitudinal outcome tracking as the diagnosis moves along a positive trajectory. Digital phenotyping of autism is paving the way for quantitative psychiatry more broadly and will set the stage for more scalable, accessible, and precise diagnostic techniques in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Washington
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California
| | - Natalie Park
- Department of Biological Sciences, Columbia University, New York, New York
| | - Parishkrita Srivastava
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California
| | - Catalin Voss
- Department of Computer Science, Stanford University, Stanford, California
| | - Aaron Kline
- Department of Pediatrics (Systems Medicine), Stanford University, Stanford, California; Department of Biomedical Data Science, Stanford University, Stanford, California
| | - Maya Varma
- Department of Computer Science, Stanford University, Stanford, California
| | - Qandeel Tariq
- Department of Pediatrics (Systems Medicine), Stanford University, Stanford, California; Department of Biomedical Data Science, Stanford University, Stanford, California
| | - Haik Kalantarian
- Department of Pediatrics (Systems Medicine), Stanford University, Stanford, California; Department of Biomedical Data Science, Stanford University, Stanford, California
| | - Jessey Schwartz
- Department of Pediatrics (Systems Medicine), Stanford University, Stanford, California; Department of Biomedical Data Science, Stanford University, Stanford, California
| | - Ritik Patnaik
- Department of Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts
| | - Brianna Chrisman
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California
| | | | - Kelley Paskov
- Department of Biomedical Data Science, Stanford University, Stanford, California
| | - Nick Haber
- School of Education, Stanford University, Stanford, California
| | - Dennis P Wall
- Department of Pediatrics (Systems Medicine), Stanford University, Stanford, California; Department of Biomedical Data Science, Stanford University, Stanford, California; Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences (by courtesy), Stanford University, Stanford, California.
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Crowley RJ, Tan YJ, Ioannidis JPA. Empirical assessment of bias in machine learning diagnostic test accuracy studies. J Am Med Inform Assoc 2020; 27:1092-1101. [PMID: 32548642 PMCID: PMC7647361 DOI: 10.1093/jamia/ocaa075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2020] [Revised: 04/12/2020] [Accepted: 04/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Machine learning (ML) diagnostic tools have significant potential to improve health care. However, methodological pitfalls may affect diagnostic test accuracy studies used to appraise such tools. We aimed to evaluate the prevalence and reporting of design characteristics within the literature. Further, we sought to empirically assess whether design features may be associated with different estimates of diagnostic accuracy. MATERIALS AND METHODS We systematically retrieved 2 × 2 tables (n = 281) describing the performance of ML diagnostic tools, derived from 114 publications in 38 meta-analyses, from PubMed. Data extracted included test performance, sample sizes, and design features. A mixed-effects metaregression was run to quantify the association between design features and diagnostic accuracy. RESULTS Participant ethnicity and blinding in test interpretation was unreported in 90% and 60% of studies, respectively. Reporting was occasionally lacking for rudimentary characteristics such as study design (28% unreported). Internal validation without appropriate safeguards was used in 44% of studies. Several design features were associated with larger estimates of accuracy, including having unreported (relative diagnostic odds ratio [RDOR], 2.11; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.43-3.1) or case-control study designs (RDOR, 1.27; 95% CI, 0.97-1.66), and recruiting participants for the index test (RDOR, 1.67; 95% CI, 1.08-2.59). DISCUSSION Significant underreporting of experimental details was present. Study design features may affect estimates of diagnostic performance in the ML diagnostic test accuracy literature. CONCLUSIONS The present study identifies pitfalls that threaten the validity, generalizability, and clinical value of ML diagnostic tools and provides recommendations for improvement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan J Crowley
- Meta-Research Innovation Center at Stanford, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford School of Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Yuan Jin Tan
- Meta-Research Innovation Center at Stanford, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
- Department of Epidemiology and Population Health, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, USA
| | - John P A Ioannidis
- Meta-Research Innovation Center at Stanford, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
- Department of Epidemiology and Population Health, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, USA
- Stanford Prevention Research Center, Department of Medicine, Stanford Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
- Department of Biomedical Data Science, Stanford Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
- Department of Statistics, School of Humanities and Science, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
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Tate AE, McCabe RC, Larsson H, Lundström S, Lichtenstein P, Kuja-Halkola R. Predicting mental health problems in adolescence using machine learning techniques. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0230389. [PMID: 32251439 PMCID: PMC7135284 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0230389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2019] [Accepted: 02/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Predicting which children will go on to develop mental health symptoms as adolescents is critical for early intervention and preventing future, severe negative outcomes. Although many aspects of a child's life, personality, and symptoms have been flagged as indicators, there is currently no model created to screen the general population for the risk of developing mental health problems. Additionally, the advent of machine learning techniques represents an exciting way to potentially improve upon the standard prediction modelling technique, logistic regression. Therefore, we aimed to I.) develop a model that can predict mental health problems in mid-adolescence II.) investigate if machine learning techniques (random forest, support vector machines, neural network, and XGBoost) will outperform logistic regression. METHODS In 7,638 twins from the Child and Adolescent Twin Study in Sweden we used 474 predictors derived from parental report and register data. The outcome, mental health problems, was determined by the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. Model performance was determined by the area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC). RESULTS Although model performance varied somewhat, the confidence interval overlapped for each model indicating non-significant superiority for the random forest model (AUC = 0.739, 95% CI 0.708-0.769), followed closely by support vector machines (AUC = 0.735, 95% CI 0.707-0.764). CONCLUSION Ultimately, our top performing model would not be suitable for clinical use, however it lays important groundwork for future models seeking to predict general mental health outcomes. Future studies should make use of parent-rated assessments when possible. Additionally, it may not be necessary for similar studies to forgo logistic regression in favor of other more complex methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashley E. Tate
- Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | | | - Henrik Larsson
- Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
- School of Medical Sciences, Örebro University, Örebro, Sweden
| | - Sebastian Lundström
- Centre for Ethics, Law and Mental Health (CELAM), University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Gillberg Neuropsychiatry Centre, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Paul Lichtenstein
- Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Ralf Kuja-Halkola
- Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
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Cantin-Garside KD, Kong Z, White SW, Antezana L, Kim S, Nussbaum MA. Detecting and Classifying Self-injurious Behavior in Autism Spectrum Disorder Using Machine Learning Techniques. J Autism Dev Disord 2020; 50:4039-4052. [PMID: 32219634 DOI: 10.1007/s10803-020-04463-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Traditional self-injurious behavior (SIB) management can place compliance demands on the caregiver and have low ecological validity and accuracy. To support an SIB monitoring system for autism spectrum disorder (ASD), we evaluated machine learning methods for detecting and distinguishing diverse SIB types. SIB episodes were captured with body-worn accelerometers from children with ASD and SIB. The highest detection accuracy was found with k-nearest neighbors and support vector machines (up to 99.1% for individuals and 94.6% for grouped participants), and classification efficiency was quite high (offline processing at ~ 0.1 ms/observation). Our results provide an initial step toward creating a continuous and objective smart SIB monitoring system, which could in turn facilitate the future care of a pervasive concern in ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Zhenyu Kong
- Department of Industrial and Systems Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, 24060, USA
| | - Susan W White
- Department of Psychology, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AB, USA.,Department of Psychology, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, 24060, USA
| | - Ligia Antezana
- Department of Psychology, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, 24060, USA
| | - Sunwook Kim
- Department of Industrial and Systems Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, 24060, USA
| | - Maury A Nussbaum
- Department of Industrial and Systems Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, 24060, USA. .,Department of Industrial and System Engineering, Virginia Tech, 250 Durham Hall (0118), Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA.
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Yusuf M, Atal I, Li J, Smith P, Ravaud P, Fergie M, Callaghan M, Selfe J. Reporting quality of studies using machine learning models for medical diagnosis: a systematic review. BMJ Open 2020; 10:e034568. [PMID: 32205374 PMCID: PMC7103817 DOI: 10.1136/bmjopen-2019-034568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2019] [Revised: 12/02/2019] [Accepted: 01/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
AIMS We conducted a systematic review assessing the reporting quality of studies validating models based on machine learning (ML) for clinical diagnosis, with a specific focus on the reporting of information concerning the participants on which the diagnostic task was evaluated on. METHOD Medline Core Clinical Journals were searched for studies published between July 2015 and July 2018. Two reviewers independently screened the retrieved articles, a third reviewer resolved any discrepancies. An extraction list was developed from the Transparent Reporting of a multivariable prediction model for Individual Prognosis Or Diagnosis guideline. Two reviewers independently extracted the data from the eligible articles. Third and fourth reviewers checked, verified the extracted data as well as resolved any discrepancies between the reviewers. RESULTS The search results yielded 161 papers, of which 28 conformed to the eligibility criteria. Detail of data source was reported in 24 of the 28 papers. For all of the papers, the set of patients on which the ML-based diagnostic system was evaluated was partitioned from a larger dataset, and the method for deriving such set was always reported. Information on the diagnostic/non-diagnostic classification was reported well (23/28). The least reported items were the use of reporting guideline (0/28), distribution of disease severity (8/28 patient flow diagram (10/28) and distribution of alternative diagnosis (10/28). A large proportion of studies (23/28) had a delay between the conduct of the reference standard and ML tests, while one study did not and four studies were unclear. For 15 studies, it was unclear whether the evaluation group corresponded to the setting in which the ML test will be applied to. CONCLUSION All studies in this review failed to use reporting guidelines, and a large proportion of them lacked adequate detail on participants, making it difficult to replicate, assess and interpret study findings. PROSPERO REGISTRATION NUMBER CRD42018099167.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed Yusuf
- Health Professions, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK
| | - Ignacio Atal
- Centre for Research and Interdisciplinarity (CRI), Université Paris Descartes, Paris, Île-de-France, France
- U1153, Epidemiology and Biostatistics Sorbonne Paris Cite Research Center (CRESS), Methods of therapeutic evaluation of chronic diseases team (METHODS), INSERM, Université Paris Descartes, Paris, Île-de-France, France
| | - Jacques Li
- U1153, Epidemiology and Biostatistics Sorbonne Paris Cite Research Center (CRESS), Methods of therapeutic evaluation of chronic diseases team (METHODS), INSERM, Université Paris Descartes, Paris, Île-de-France, France
| | - Philip Smith
- Health Professions, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK
| | - Philippe Ravaud
- U1153, Epidemiology and Biostatistics Sorbonne Paris Cite Research Center (CRESS), Methods of therapeutic evaluation of chronic diseases team (METHODS), INSERM, Université Paris Descartes, Paris, Île-de-France, France
| | - Martin Fergie
- Imaging and Data Sciences, The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | - Michael Callaghan
- Health Professions, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK
| | - James Selfe
- Health Professions, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK
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43
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A Machine Learning and Integration Based Architecture for Cognitive Disorder Detection Used for Early Autism Screening. ELECTRONICS 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/electronics9030516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
About 15% of the world’s population suffers from some form of disability. In developed countries, about 1.5% of children are diagnosed with autism. Autism is a developmental disorder distinguished mainly by impairments in social interaction and communication and by restricted and repetitive behavior. Since the cause of autism is still unknown, there have been many studies focused on screening for autism based on behavioral features. Thus, the main purpose of this paper is to present an architecture focused on data integration and analytics, allowing the distributed processing of input data. Furthermore, the proposed architecture allows the identification of relevant features as well as of hidden correlations among parameters. To this end, we propose a methodology able to integrate diverse data sources, even data that are collected separately. This methodology increases the data variety which can lead to the identification of more correlations between diverse parameters. We conclude the paper with a case study that used autism data in order to validate our proposed architecture, which showed very promising results.
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Küpper C, Stroth S, Wolff N, Hauck F, Kliewer N, Schad-Hansjosten T, Kamp-Becker I, Poustka L, Roessner V, Schultebraucks K, Roepke S. Identifying predictive features of autism spectrum disorders in a clinical sample of adolescents and adults using machine learning. Sci Rep 2020; 10:4805. [PMID: 32188882 PMCID: PMC7080741 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-61607-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2019] [Accepted: 02/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Diagnosing autism spectrum disorders (ASD) is a complicated, time-consuming process which is particularly challenging in older individuals. One of the most widely used behavioral diagnostic tools is the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS). Previous work using machine learning techniques suggested that ASD detection in children can be achieved with substantially fewer items than the original ADOS. Here, we expand on this work with a specific focus on adolescents and adults as assessed with the ADOS Module 4. We used a machine learning algorithm (support vector machine) to examine whether ASD detection can be improved by identifying a subset of behavioral features from the ADOS Module 4 in a routine clinical sample of N = 673 high-functioning adolescents and adults with ASD (n = 385) and individuals with suspected ASD but other best-estimate or no psychiatric diagnoses (n = 288). We identified reduced subsets of 5 behavioral features for the whole sample as well as age subgroups (adolescents vs. adults) that showed good specificity and sensitivity and reached performance close to that of the existing ADOS algorithm and the full ADOS, with no significant differences in overall performance. These results may help to improve the complicated diagnostic process of ASD by encouraging future efforts to develop novel diagnostic instruments for ASD detection based on the identified constructs as well as aiding clinicians in the difficult question of differential diagnosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charlotte Küpper
- Department of Psychiatry, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Campus Benjamin Franklin, Berlin, Germany.
| | - Sanna Stroth
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Psychosomatics and Psychotherapy, Philipps University, Marburg, Germany
| | - Nicole Wolff
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, TU Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Florian Hauck
- Department of Information Systems, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Natalia Kliewer
- Department of Information Systems, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Tanja Schad-Hansjosten
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim/University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Inge Kamp-Becker
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Psychosomatics and Psychotherapy, Philipps University, Marburg, Germany
| | - Luise Poustka
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, University Medical Center, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Veit Roessner
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, TU Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Katharina Schultebraucks
- Department of Psychiatry, New York University School of Medicine, New York, USA.,Vagelos School of Physicians and Surgeons, Department of Emergency Medicine, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, USA
| | - Stefan Roepke
- Department of Psychiatry, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Campus Benjamin Franklin, Berlin, Germany.
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Parola A, Salvini R, Gabbatore I, Colle L, Berardinelli L, Bosco FM. Pragmatics, Theory of Mind and executive functions in schizophrenia: Disentangling the puzzle using machine learning. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0229603. [PMID: 32126068 PMCID: PMC7053733 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0229603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2019] [Accepted: 02/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Schizophrenia is associated with a severe impairment in the communicative-pragmatic domain. Recent research has tried to disentangle the relationship between communicative impairment and other domains usually impaired in schizophrenia, i.e. Theory of Mind (ToM) and cognitive functions. However, the results are inconclusive and this relationship is still unclear. Machine learning (ML) provides novel opportunities for studying complex relationships among phenomena and representing causality among multiple variables. The present research explored the potential of applying ML, specifically Bayesian network (BNs) analysis, to characterize the relationship between cognitive, ToM and pragmatic abilities in individuals with schizophrenia and healthy controls, and to identify the cognitive and pragmatic abilities that are most informative in discriminating between schizophrenia and controls. METHODS We provided a comprehensive assessment of different aspects of pragmatic performance, i.e. linguistic, extralinguistic, paralinguistic, contextual and conversational, ToM and cognitive functions, i.e. Executive Functions (EF)-selective attention, planning, inhibition, cognitive flexibility, working memory and speed processing-and general intelligence, in a sample of 32 individuals with schizophrenia and 35 controls. RESULTS The results showed that the BNs classifier discriminated well between patients with schizophrenia and healthy controls. The network structure revealed that only pragmatic Linguistic ability directly influenced the classification of patients and controls, while diagnosis determined performance on ToM, Extralinguistic, Paralinguistic, Selective Attention, Planning, Inhibition and Cognitive Flexibility tasks. The model identified pragmatic, ToM and cognitive abilities as three distinct domains independent of one another. CONCLUSION Taken together, our results confirmed the importance of considering pragmatic linguistic impairment as a core dysfunction in schizophrenia, and demonstrated the potential of applying BNs in investigating the relationship between pragmatic ability and cognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alberto Parola
- Department of Psychology, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Rogerio Salvini
- Instituto de Informática, Universidade Federal de Goiás, Goiânia, GO, Brasil
| | | | - Livia Colle
- Department of Psychology, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | | | - Francesca M. Bosco
- Department of Psychology, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
- Institute of Neurosciences of Turin, Turin, Italy
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Abstract
Numerous technologies have been introduced for the diagnosis, treatment, and management of patients with neurologic disorders, offering the promise of early diagnosis, tailored and individualized interventions, improvement in quality of life, and restoration of neurologic function. Many of these technologies have become available commercially without having been evaluated by rigorous clinical trials and regulatory reviews, or at the least by peer review of results submitted for publication. A subset is intended to assess, assist, and monitor cognitive functions, motor skills, and autonomic functions and as such may be applicable to persons with developmental disabilities. Barriers that have previously limited the use of technologies by persons with neurodevelopmental disabilities are disappearing as new technologies that have the potential to substantially augment diagnosis and interventions to enhance the daily lives of persons with these disorders are emerging. While recent and future advances in technology have the potential to transform their lives, cautious and thoughtful evaluation is needed to ensure the technologies provide maximal value. As such, further work is needed to demonstrate feasibility, efficacy, and cost-effectiveness, and technologies should be designed to be optimized for individual use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven C Schachter
- Department of Neurology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States.
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Uddin M, Wang Y, Woodbury-Smith M. Artificial intelligence for precision medicine in neurodevelopmental disorders. NPJ Digit Med 2019; 2:112. [PMID: 31799421 PMCID: PMC6872596 DOI: 10.1038/s41746-019-0191-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2018] [Accepted: 10/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The ambition of precision medicine is to design and optimize the pathway for diagnosis, therapeutic intervention, and prognosis by using large multidimensional biological datasets that capture individual variability in genes, function and environment. This offers clinicians the opportunity to more carefully tailor early interventions- whether treatment or preventative in nature-to each individual patient. Taking advantage of high performance computer capabilities, artificial intelligence (AI) algorithms can now achieve reasonable success in predicting risk in certain cancers and cardiovascular disease from available multidimensional clinical and biological data. In contrast, less progress has been made with the neurodevelopmental disorders, which include intellectual disability (ID), autism spectrum disorder (ASD), epilepsy and broader neurodevelopmental disorders. Much hope is pinned on the opportunity to quantify risk from patterns of genomic variation, including the functional characterization of genes and variants, but this ambition is confounded by phenotypic and etiologic heterogeneity, along with the rare and variable penetrant nature of the underlying risk variants identified so far. Structural and functional brain imaging and neuropsychological and neurophysiological markers may provide further dimensionality, but often require more development to achieve sensitivity for diagnosis. Herein, therefore, lies a precision medicine conundrum: can artificial intelligence offer a breakthrough in predicting risks and prognosis for neurodevelopmental disorders? In this review we will examine these complexities, and consider some of the strategies whereby artificial intelligence may overcome them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammed Uddin
- Mohammed Bin Rashid University of Medicine and Health Sciences, Dubai, UAE
- 2The Centre for Applied Genomics, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON Canada
| | - Yujiang Wang
- 3Institute of Neuroscience, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
- 4School of Computing, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Marc Woodbury-Smith
- 2The Centre for Applied Genomics, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON Canada
- 3Institute of Neuroscience, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
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Machine learning algorithm validation with a limited sample size. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0224365. [PMID: 31697686 PMCID: PMC6837442 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0224365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 486] [Impact Index Per Article: 97.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2019] [Accepted: 10/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Advances in neuroimaging, genomic, motion tracking, eye-tracking and many other technology-based data collection methods have led to a torrent of high dimensional datasets, which commonly have a small number of samples because of the intrinsic high cost of data collection involving human participants. High dimensional data with a small number of samples is of critical importance for identifying biomarkers and conducting feasibility and pilot work, however it can lead to biased machine learning (ML) performance estimates. Our review of studies which have applied ML to predict autistic from non-autistic individuals showed that small sample size is associated with higher reported classification accuracy. Thus, we have investigated whether this bias could be caused by the use of validation methods which do not sufficiently control overfitting. Our simulations show that K-fold Cross-Validation (CV) produces strongly biased performance estimates with small sample sizes, and the bias is still evident with sample size of 1000. Nested CV and train/test split approaches produce robust and unbiased performance estimates regardless of sample size. We also show that feature selection if performed on pooled training and testing data is contributing to bias considerably more than parameter tuning. In addition, the contribution to bias by data dimensionality, hyper-parameter space and number of CV folds was explored, and validation methods were compared with discriminable data. The results suggest how to design robust testing methodologies when working with small datasets and how to interpret the results of other studies based on what validation method was used.
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Thabtah F, Peebles D. Early Autism Screening: A Comprehensive Review. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2019; 16:E3502. [PMID: 31546906 PMCID: PMC6765988 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph16183502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2019] [Revised: 09/15/2019] [Accepted: 09/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Autistic spectrum disorder (ASD) refers to a neurodevelopmental condition associated with verbal and nonverbal communication, social interactions, and behavioural complications that is becoming increasingly common in many parts of the globe. Identifying individuals on the spectrum has remained a lengthy process for the past few decades due to the fact that some individuals diagnosed with ASD exhibit exceptional skills in areas such as mathematics, arts, and music among others. To improve the accuracy and reliability of autism diagnoses, many scholars have developed pre-diagnosis screening methods to help identify autistic behaviours at an early stage, speed up the clinical diagnosis referral process, and improve the understanding of ASD for the different stakeholders involved, such as parents, caregivers, teachers, and family members. However, the functionality and reliability of those screening tools vary according to different research studies and some have remained questionable. This study evaluates and critically analyses 37 different ASD screening tools in order to identify possible areas that need to be addressed through further development and innovation. More importantly, different criteria associated with existing screening tools, such as accessibility, the fulfilment of Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) specifications, comprehensibility among the target audience, performance (specifically sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy), web and mobile availability, and popularity have been investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fadi Thabtah
- Department of Psychology, School of Human and Health Sciences, University of Huddersfield, Huddersfield HD1 3DH, UK.
| | - David Peebles
- Department of Psychology, School of Human and Health Sciences, University of Huddersfield, Huddersfield HD1 3DH, UK.
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A machine learning autism classification based on logistic regression analysis. Health Inf Sci Syst 2019; 7:12. [PMID: 31168365 DOI: 10.1007/s13755-019-0073-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2019] [Accepted: 05/22/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Autistic Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental condition associated with significant healthcare costs; early diagnosis could substantially reduce these. The economic impact of autism reveals an urgent need for the development of easily implemented and effective screening methods. Therefore, time-efficient ASD screening is imperative to help health professionals and to inform individuals whether they should pursue formal clinical diagnosis. Presently, very limited autism datasets associated with screening are available and most of them are genetic in nature. We propose new machine learning framework related to autism screening of adults and adolescents that contain vital features and perform predictive analysis using logistic regression to reveal important information related to autism screening. We also perform an in-depth feature analysis on the two datasets using information gain (IG) and Chi square testing (CHI) to determine the influential features that can be utilized in screening for autism. Results obtained reveal that machine learning technology was able to generate classification systems that have acceptable performance in terms of sensitivity, specificity and accuracy among others.
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