Social Withdrawal and Aloneliness in Adolescence: Examining the Implications of Too Much and Not Enough Solitude

The Risks of Being a Wallflower: Exploring Links Between Introversion, Aspects of Solitude, and Indices of Well-Being in Adolescence

The aim of the current study was to examine the unique relations between introversion and indices of well-being while accounting for aspects of solitude (i.e., time spent alone, shyness, affinity for solitude, and negative thinking while alone). Participants were n = 1036 adolescents (15-19 years of age, M = 16.19 years, SD = 0.58; 67% girls) who completed a series of self-report measures assessing introversion, time spent alone, negative thinking while alone, motivations for solitude (shyness, affinity for solitude), and indices of well-being (i.e., loneliness, positive/negative affect, general well-being). Overall, results from correlational analyses indicated that introversion was associated with poorer functioning across all indices of well-being. However, when controlling for aspects of solitude, results from hierarchical regression analyses indicated a complex set of associations that varied across indices of well-being. Introversion remained associated significantly and negatively with well-being and positive affect, was no longer related significantly to loneliness, and became related significantly and negatively to negative affect. Findings are discussed in terms of how personality characteristics and aspects of solitude can impact the well-being of adolescents.

Longitudinal Changes in Psychosocial Adjustment Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic for Adolescents with Differential Patterns of Solitude and Sociability

Previous research has lacked a comprehensive, longitudinal analysis of characteristics of solitude and sociability, and how they are associated with changes in psychosocial adjustment before and during the pandemic. The current study surveyed 1071 adolescents (Mage = 10.6, SD = 1.69, 49.86% female, age range = 8-14 years at Year 1) over six years (three years before pandemic, three years during pandemic). Piecewise linear mixed-effects analysis showed that adolescents with higher solitude and lower sociability reported improvements in adjustment during the pandemic, whereas adolescents with lower solitude and higher sociability reported declines in adjustment. The findings highlight the importance of considering multiple characteristics of solitude and sociability, as well as contextual factors (e.g., pandemic), to better understand the implications of solitude on adolescent adjustment.

Compulsive digital use: the risk and link of loneliness among adolescents

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The current rise of digital technologies is causing adolescents to spend more time on their digital devices, especially since the lockdown period of the pandemic. Adolescents are among those who are affected by lifestyle changes and are at risk of digital addiction due to the overuse of digital technologies. This opinion paper discusses the possible risk of loneliness among adolescents due to the overuse of digital devices. In this article, we would like to propose the concept of digital abuse and its risk of loneliness, as well as discuss some proposed solutions by referring to recent statistics and research evidence to reduce digital abuse among adolescents.

RECENT FINDINGS

Evidence from previous studies highlights the association between digital addiction and loneliness among adolescents. Overusing digital devices among adolescents is also associated with various physical and psychological side effects.

SUMMARY

Recent findings support the rapid rise of digital device usage among adolescents and its contributions to digital use. More research is needed to support existing interventions, provide early screening, and combat digital addiction to protect adolescents from the risks of loneliness due to the overuse of digital devices.

The paradox of social avoidance and the yearning for understanding: Elevated interbrain synchrony among socially avoidant individuals during expression of negative emotions

Social avoidance refers to the tendency to be alone and non-participating to social interactions, which is considered to hamper health interpersonal relationship. However, the neural underpinnings of social and emotional interactions among social avoidant individuals have not been fully studied. In the present study, we used EEG hyperscanning technology to investigate the brain activity and its synchronization of 25 socially avoidant dyads and 28 comparison dyads during an emotional communication task. The emotional communication task consisted of the emotional processing stage and emotional interaction stage. Event-related potentials (ERPs) of the senders during the emotional processing stage and the interbrain synchrony (IBS) of the dyads during the emotional interaction stage were analyzed. Results showed that (1) socially avoidant group showed higher beta, theta and gamma IBS in the negative condition than in the positive and neutral condition; (2) in positive condition, the N1 and LPP amplitudes during the emotional processing stage of socially avoidant individuals were negatively correlated with the IBS within dyads during the emotional communication stage. The findings suggest that the dysfunctional emotional interaction of social avoidant individuals may be attributed to the negative impact of emotional stimuli processing during emotional communication.

Changes of Solitude Behaviors among College Students: A Latent Transition Analysis

Solitude behaviors encompass four types: positive solitude, eccentricity, social avoidance, and loneliness. These four types of solitude behaviors are not entirely independent but can co-occur within individuals. Thus, the purpose of this study was to explore latent classes of solitude behaviors, their developmental patterns, and relevant influencing factors among college students. The Solitude Behavior Scale-Short Version was administered to a sample of college students. A total of 417 Chinese students completed a three-time longitudinal paper questionnaire. The data analysis was performed using Mplus 8.0 and SPSS 26.0. Harman's single-factor test, latent class analysis (LCA), and latent transition analysis (LTA) were employed for subsequent analysis. The results revealed three classes: low solitude, moderate solitude, and high solitude, which exhibited temporal changes. Social avoidance and loneliness could facilitate transitions between high solitude and moderate solitude. Females and first-grade students exhibited higher transition probabilities than males and students not in the first grade. The incidence of moderate solitude in the not-first-grade group was significantly higher than that in the first-grade group. Finally, this study offers new insights into the dynamics of solitude behaviors and their association with gender and age.

Assessment and correlates of aloneliness among Indonesian adolescents

Introduction

The goals of this study were to: (1) adapt and validate a measure of aloneliness (Solitude and Aloneliness Scale; SolAS) for use among Indonesian adolescents; (2) examine the associations between aloneliness and indices of well-being in this unique developmental and cultural context; and (3) explore possible grade and gender effects.

Methods

Participants were Indonesian adolescents aged 11-18 years (M = 14.13 years, SD = 1.62; 58.51% girls) who completed self-report assessments of the adapted SolAS (newly created Indonesian translation), as well as indices of adjustment (e.g., well-being, basic psychological need satisfaction).

Results

Among the results, the Indonesian version of the SolAS demonstrated good psychometric properties (e.g., factor structure, good internal reliability) and initial evidence of validity (e.g., significant negative correlations with measures of psychological well-being and basic psychological needs satisfaction). Girls reported higher levels of aloneliness than boys, but no significant grade differences emerged.

Conclusions

The SolAS evidenced good psychometric properties and evidence of validity in a sample of Indonesian adolescents, suggesting it is desirable for cross-cultural research.

Autism traits, social withdrawal, and behavioral and emotional problems in a Norwegian cohort of adolescents with rare genetic disorders

BACKGROUND

Adolescents with rare genetic disorders represent a population that can be at risk in psychosocial terms. Despite its importance, the association of autism traits and social withdrawal in behavioral and emotional problems in adolescents with rare genetic disorders remains understudied.

AIM

The study aimed to empirically examine the clinical characteristics of adolescents with rare genetic disorders with a behavior theory-driven approach.

METHOD

We investigated the behavioral and emotional problems and current and lifetime autistic traits in a sample of 93 Norwegian adolescents (Mage = 13.2 years, SDage = 2.4, rangeage 10-17, 62.4% females, 37.6% males) with various rare genetic disorders. The adolescents were investigated cross-sectionally utilizing standardized psychometric questionnaires rated by their parents.

RESULTS

More current and lifetime autistic traits and social withdrawal were all associated with more internalizing problems. Further analyses demonstrated that social withdrawal partially mediated the positive association between current autistic traits and internalizing problems. In contrast, social withdrawal fully mediated the positive association between lifetime autistic traits and internalizing problems.

CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS

Our results demonstrate important characteristics of adolescents with rare genetic disorders that may guide clinicians and future interventions. Social withdrawal may be prodromal to internalizing problems such as anxiety and depression. Thus, clinically addressing social withdrawal can represent a means to prevent internalizing problems in adolescents with rare genetic disorders and autistic traits.

When is Solitude Maladaptive for Adolescents? A Comprehensive Study of Sociability and Characteristics of Solitude

Research examining the link between solitude and psychosocial adjustment among adolescents has lacked a comprehensive, person-centered examination of differential patterns of both solitude and sociability. The current study surveyed 1071 adolescents (Mage = 12.48, SD = 1.71, 49.86% female, age range = 10-16 years). Using latent-profile analysis, four groups were identified with differential patterns of characteristics of solitude (i.e., enjoyment, motivations, preference, frequency) and sociability. Results indicated that worse psychosocial adjustment across time points was associated with membership in the PFS-NonSociable group (characterized by high enjoyment, preference, and frequency of solitude; low sociability) compared to all other groups. Findings suggest that solitude for adolescents appears to be linked to worse psychosocial adjustment only if accompanied by a lack of sociability.

Contemporary Hermits: A Developmental Psychopathology Account of Extreme Social Withdrawal (Hikikomori) in Young People

Although it is widely accepted that human beings have an ingrained 'need to belong,' there seem to be a substantial subset of young people who seclude themselves for most of the time at home and no longer engage in education or work, ultimately withdrawing from participation in society. In Japan, this phenomenon has been labeled as 'hikikomori,' but given its global presence it may be preferable to use the term 'extreme social withdrawal' (ESW). In this qualitative review, we provide a description and definition of ESW, provide figures on its prevalence, and discuss a number of associated concepts, including loneliness and "aloneliness," school absenteeism and dropout, the 'new' developmental stage of adultolescence, and the labor force categories of freeter ('freelance arbeiter') and NEET (a young person not in employment, education, or training). The core of the paper is focused on the origins of ESW in young people and provides a narrative overview of relevant etiological factors, such as aberrant brain processes, unfavorable temperament, psychiatric conditions, adverse family processes including detrimental parenting, negative peer experiences, societal pressures, and excessive internet and digital media use, which are all placed within a comprehensive developmental psychopathology framework. We will close with a discussion of possible interventions for young people with ESW and formulate a guideline that describes (the temporal order of) various components that need to be included in such a treatment.

Social Withdrawal in Adolescence: Developmental and Humanistic Perspectives

In both the West and East, social withdrawal, manifested as solitude and shyness, has distinct developmental implications for adolescent mental health. Representative countries in the West (e.g., North America and Europe) and East (e.g., China) were selected to compare cultural differences. This literature review aims to discuss how adolescents experience solitude and shyness differently in North America, Europe, and China from a developmental perspective, and adopts a cross-cultural perspective to explain the distinct outcomes of adolescent social withdrawal. Furthermore, humanistic perspectives are discussed to link adolescent development and humanism in terms of previous empirical evidence and counseling practices. In North America and Europe, solitude has both adaptive and harmful effects on adolescents’ mental health. However, solitude in China and shyness in both cultural settings tend to adversely affect adolescent mental health. These findings from previous studies correspond to developmental perspectives in terms of mental health, personal adaptation, and self-development during adolescence. The strengths, weaknesses, and implications of this literature review are also discussed.

Links between social avoidance and frontal alpha asymmetry during processing emotional facial stimuli: An exploratory study

Individuals who are socially avoidant actively remove themselves from opportunities for social interaction and have a strong desire for solitude. Although social avoidance is associated with a host of adjustment difficulties, its neural substrates remain under-explored. To address this gap, we conducted an exploratory study to compare electroencephalography (EEG) frontal alpha asymmetry (FAA) scores during processing emotional facial stimuli in socially avoidant and non-withdrawn comparison individuals. From an original sample of N = 384 undergraduate students, 25 avoidant and 27 comparison individuals were identified. For this subset of participants, EEG modulations and self-reported experience ratings during a picture processing task were assessed. Among the results, the socially avoidant group's ratings of positive stimuli were significantly lower than the non-withdrawn comparison group. The socially avoidant group also had significantly lower FAA scores in response to positive stimuli than the comparison group. Further, asymmetry scores of the comparison group in the positive conditions were higher than in the negative and neutral conditions. However, there were no significant differences between these three conditions in the socially avoidant group. Our results suggest that socially avoidant individuals may eschew interpersonal relationships because of a relatively greater right hemisphere cortical activity, which may contribute to a withdrawal motivation when confronted with negative emotional stimuli in social contexts.

Are you alone? Measuring solitude in childhood, adolescence, and emerging adulthood

The goal of this review was to provide an overview of how solitude has been operationally defined and measured since the year 2000 in psychological studies of children, adolescents, and emerging adults. After applying exclusionary criteria, our review of the extant literature identified n = 19 empirical studies, which we grouped into three broad methodological categories: (1) experiments/manipulations (n = 5); (2) retrospective reports (n = 7); and (3) experience sampling measures (experience sampling methodology; n = 7). A review of these studies indicated considerable variation in how solitude is operationalized and measured. There is also a notable lack of studies measuring solitude in childhood. Implications for 'what matters' when assessing solitude are discussed, and we provide a series of suggestions for helping this research area move forward.

The moderating effect of marital conflict on the relationship between social avoidance and socio-emotional functioning among young children in suburban China

Social avoidance has been found to be related to negative social adjustment, yet evidence of the relationship between social avoidance and social adjustment is very limited in suburban preschoolers in China. Moreover, the underlying mechanisms that help to explain the associations between social avoidance and socio-emotional adjustment remain poorly considered. The goal of the present study was to examine the moderating effect of marital conflict in the link between social avoidance and indices of socio-emotional functioning among young children in mainland China. Participants were N = 256 children aged from 49 to 72 months (125 boys, 131 girls, M_age  = 59.06 months, SD = 6.58) attending preschools/kindergartens in suburban areas of Shanghai, People's Republic of China. Multi-source assessments were employed, with mothers reporting marital conflict as well as rating their children's social withdrawal (i.e., social avoidance, shyness, unsociability), and teachers assessing indices of children's socio-emotional functioning at school (i.e., anxious-fearful behavior, peer exclusion, and loneliness). Children were asked about their loneliness. Among the results, social avoidance was positively associated with anxious-fearful behavior, peer exclusion, and loneliness (marginal significance). Moreover, as hypothesized, marital conflict was found to exacerbate the relations between social avoidance and peer exclusion, and loneliness. Results are discussed in terms of the etiology and implications of social avoidance among young children in mainland China.

Alone with my phone? Examining beliefs about solitude and technology use in adolescence

In this study, we examined how technology impacts adolescents' perceptions of, and affective responses to solitude, as well as how adolescents' own motivations for solitude (shyness, affinity for aloneness) were related to these reactions. Participants were N = 437 adolescents (297 girls; M age = 16.15 years, standard deviation (SD) = .50) who were presented with a series of hypothetical vignettes asking them to imagine themselves in the context of pure solitude (alone in their room with the door closed), as well as being physically alone but engaged in increasing levels of virtual social engagement, including passive (e.g., watching videos, scrolling, but no direct social engagement), active (e.g., texting), and audio-visual (e.g., Facetime) technology use. Following each vignette, participants reported their perceptions of being alone and positive/negative affective responses. We also measured general motivations for solitude (shyness, affinity for aloneness). Among the results, adolescents perceived themselves as less alone in vignettes depicting increasing virtual social engagement. Affective benefits of increased virtual engagement were also found (e.g., less loneliness/boredom/sadness, greater social connection/contentment). However, these effects were moderated by solitude motivations, with different patterns evident as a function of participant shyness and affinity for aloneness. Findings highlight the importance of considering the nature of adolescents' technology use when alone, as well as motivations for solitude, when considering links between solitude and well-being.

Solitude and affect during emerging adulthood: When, and for whom, spending time alone is related to positive and negative affect during social interactions

The present study examines within- and between-person associations between emerging adults’ daily time spent alone and their positive/negative affect during social interactions. We also consider whether motivations for seeking solitude (shyness, unsociability, avoidance) moderate these associations. Participants were 411 emerging adults (ages 18–26 years; 51% female; 52% ethnic minority) who reported on their motivations for solitude and completed daily reports of their time spent alone and positive/negative affect experienced during social interactions for 7 consecutive days. Among the results, multi-level modeling indicated that on days when emerging adults spent more time alone than usual, they experienced increased levels of high and low arousal positive affect when they interacted with others. Interactions between shy and avoidant motivations and change in time spent alone also emerged, with follow-up analyses indicating that for highly and moderately shy and avoidant emerging adults, days with more time spent alone than usual were associated with greater reports of anxious affect during social interactions. Findings suggest that although many emerging adults may find social interactions more enjoyable on days with increased time alone, those who actively seek solitude as an escape from perceived stressful or unpleasant social circumstances may not.

Aloneliness predicts relational anger and aggression toward romantic partners

Aloneliness is the negative psychological state characterized by dissatisfaction with one's lack of solitude, which is connected to well-being deficits (e.g., depression, stress). From an I³ theory perspective, we expected that aloneliness could predict anger and partner-directed aggression among persons in romantic relationships, who must, by nature of their partnership, dedicate time to their romantic partners. In Studies 1a and 1b (N = 554), trait aloneliness positively correlated with trait anger, aggression, and violence, but more strongly among persons in relationships (vs. single persons). In Study 2, aloneliness was experimentally primed among 93 undergraduates in relationships. When aloneliness was salient (vs. a control), participants reported higher anger and used more pins in a partner-representative voodoo doll. These results suggest that solitude is an inhibiting factor against anger and, potentially, the perpetration of partner-directed aggression. Although subsequent work in this area is needed, we add evidence showing the importance of individual differences in the need for solitude.

Evaluating Links between Social Withdrawal Motivations and Indices of Psychosocial Adjustment among Norwegian Emerging Adults

Social withdrawal is the behavioral tendency to remove oneself from social situations - a tendency that often contributes to reductions in individuals' mental health. The current study evaluated the links between different motivations for social withdrawal (shyness, unsociability, social avoidance) and indices of psychosocial adjustment in a Norwegian sample of emerging adults. Participants were N = 194 Norwegian university students who completed self-report measures of life satisfaction, loneliness, and depressive symptoms, as well as withdrawal motivations. Among the results, a newly translated version of the Social Preference Scale-Revised (SPS-R) was validated for use in Norway. Findings showed that shyness was uniquely and positively associated with loneliness and depressive symptoms, as well as lower life satisfaction, whereas social avoidance was positively associated with depressive symptoms. Unsociability was uniquely linked to lower levels of loneliness and depressive symptoms. Findings provide novel information about the psychosocial correlates of social withdrawal motivations during emerging adulthood in the under-explored cultural context of Norway. Understanding nuances in the correlates of different motivations may aid in the development of culturally and developmentally sensitive interventions.

Identifying Clusters of Adolescents Based on Their Daily-Life Social Withdrawal Experience

Social withdrawal is often presented as overall negative, with a focus on loneliness and peer exclusion. However, social withdrawal is also a part of normative adolescent development, which indicates that groups of adolescents potentially experience social withdrawal differently from one another. This study investigated whether different groups of adolescents experienced social withdrawal in daily life as positive versus negative, using experience sampling data from a large-scale study on mental health in general population adolescents aged 11 to 20 (n = 1913, M_Age = 13.8, SD_Age = 1.9, 63% female) from the Flemish region in Belgium. Two social withdrawal clusters were identified using model-based cluster analysis: one cluster characterized by high levels of positive affect and one cluster characterized by high levels of negative affect, loneliness and exclusion. Logistic regression showed that boys had 66% decreased odds of belonging to the negative cluster. These results show that daily-life social withdrawal experiences are heterogeneous in adolescence, which strengthens the view that, both in research and clinical practice, social withdrawal should not be seen as necessarily maladaptive.

Links between Child Shyness and Indices of Internalizing Problems during the COVID-19 Pandemic: The Protective Role of Positivity

Shyness in childhood has been linked to socio-emotional difficulties such as anxiety, depression, and loneliness. On the contrary, positivity (i.e., a personal tendency to see oneself, life, and future in a positive light) has been described as a protective factor. Given the challenges experienced by children during the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic (e.g., closure of school and confinement), we aimed to test the potential protective role of positivity and how it may link child shyness and indices of internalizing problems (i.e., anxiety, depression, loneliness) during the first wave of the pandemic. Participants were N = 236 children (M_age = 9.25 years, SD = 1.20) from Italy, Spain, and the United Kingdom, the three worst-hit countries in Europe when the data were collected (April-June, 2020). Children completed online self-evaluation scales to assess temperamental shyness, positivity, and indices of internalizing problems during the COVID-19 pandemic. Results from a multivariate regression analysis revealed significant interaction effects between shyness and positivity in the prediction of outcome variables. Follow-up simple slope analyses indicated that shyness was positively related to depression only among children with lower levels of positivity. The study highlights the role of children's positivity in buffering the pernicious link between shyness and their negative feelings during the pandemic. The practical implications of these findings are discussed.

Affinity for Solitude and Motivations for Spending Time Alone Among Early and Mid- Adolescents

Research on the link between affinity for solitude (a tendency to enjoy time alone) and psychosocial adjustment among adolescents has been mixed; however, this may depend on whether time spent alone is motivated by positive (self-reflection, creative pursuits) or reactive (negative affect, avoiding social interaction) factors. The current study investigated affinity for solitude and motivations for spending time alone among 1072 early to mid-adolescents (M_age = 12.48 years, age range = 10-16, 49.8% female). Higher reactive solitude predicted depressive symptoms, peer victimization, and lower self-esteem, controlling for previous scores on these adjustment indicators. For social anxiety and friendship quality, there were significant 3-way interactions between affinity for solitude, reactive solitude, and frequency of time spent alone, indicating that the relation between affinity for solitude and these latter adjustment indicators depends on why and how often youth spend time alone. Findings indicate that attention should be given to youth who spend time alone for reactive reasons, as this appears to be associated with negative adjustment.