Use of thin filament reconstituted muscle fibres to probe the mechanism of force generation

Mechanisms of myosin II force generation: insights from novel experimental techniques and approaches

Myosin II is a molecular motor that converts chemical energy derived from ATP hydrolysis into mechanical work. Myosin II isoforms are responsible for muscle contraction and a range of cell functions relying on the development of force and motion. When the motor attaches to actin, ATP is hydrolyzed and inorganic phosphate (Pi) and ADP are released from its active site. These reactions are coordinated with changes in the structure of myosin, promoting the so-called "power stroke" that causes the sliding of actin filaments. The general features of the myosin-actin interactions are well accepted, but there are critical issues that remain poorly understood, mostly due to technological limitations. In recent years, there has been a significant advance in structural, biochemical, and mechanical methods that have advanced the field considerably. New modeling approaches have also allowed researchers to understand actomyosin interactions at different levels of analysis. This paper reviews recent studies looking into the interaction between myosin II and actin filaments, which leads to power stroke and force generation. It reviews studies conducted with single myosin molecules, myosins working in filaments, muscle sarcomeres, myofibrils, and fibers. It also reviews the mathematical models that have been used to understand the mechanics of myosin II in approaches focusing on single molecules to ensembles. Finally, it includes brief sections on translational aspects, how changes in the myosin motor by mutations and/or posttranslational modifications may cause detrimental effects in diseases and aging, among other conditions, and how myosin II has become an emerging drug target.

The 3D structure of fibrous material is fully restorable from its X-ray diffraction pattern

X-ray fiber diffraction is potentially a powerful technique to study the structure of fibrous materials, such as DNA and synthetic polymers. However, only rotationally averaged diffraction patterns can be recorded and it is difficult to correctly interpret them without the knowledge of esoteric diffraction theories. Here we demonstrate that, in principle, the non-rotationally averaged 3D structure of a fibrous material can be restored from its fiber diffraction pattern. The method is a simple puzzle-solving process and in ideal cases it does not require any prior knowledge about the structure, such as helical symmetry. We believe that the proposed method has a potential to transform the fiber diffraction to a 3D imaging technique, and will be useful for a wide field of life and materials sciences.

Enhancing diastolic function by strain-dependent detachment of cardiac myosin crossbridges

The force response of cardiac muscle undergoing a quick stretch is conventionally interpreted to represent stretching of attached myosin crossbridges (phase 1) and detachment of these stretched crossbridges at an exponential rate (phase 2), followed by crossbridges reattaching in increased numbers due to an enhanced activation of the thin filament (phases 3 and 4). We propose that, at least in mammalian cardiac muscle, phase 2 instead represents an enhanced detachment rate of myosin crossbridges due to stretch, phase 3 represents the reattachment of those same crossbridges, and phase 4 is a passive-like viscoelastic response with power-law relaxation. To test this idea, we developed a two-state model of crossbridge attachment and detachment. Unitary force was assigned when a crossbridge was attached, and an elastic force was generated when an attached crossbridge was displaced. Attachment rate, f(x), was spatially distributed with a total magnitude f₀. Detachment rate was modeled as g(x) = g₀+ g₁x, where g₀ is a constant and g₁ indicates sensitivity to displacement. The analytical solution suggested that the exponential decay rate of phase 2 represents (f₀ + g₀) and the exponential rise rate of phase 3 represents g₀. The depth of the nadir between phases 2 and 3 is proportional to g₁. We prepared skinned mouse myocardium and applied a 1% stretch under varying concentrations of inorganic phosphate (Pi). The resulting force responses fitted the analytical solution well. The interpretations of phases 2 and 3 were consistent with lower f₀ and higher g₀ with increasing Pi. This novel scheme of interpreting the force response to a quick stretch does not require enhanced thin-filament activation and suggests that the myosin detachment rate is sensitive to stretch. Furthermore, the enhanced detachment rate is likely not due to the typical detachment mechanism following MgATP binding, but rather before MgADP release, and may involve reversal of the myosin power stroke.

Hypothesis: Single Actomyosin Properties Account for Ensemble Behavior in Active Muscle Shortening and Isometric Contraction

Muscle contraction results from cyclic interactions between myosin II motors and actin with two sets of proteins organized in overlapping thick and thin filaments, respectively, in a nearly crystalline lattice in a muscle sarcomere. However, a sarcomere contains a huge number of other proteins, some with important roles in muscle contraction. In particular, these include thin filament proteins, troponin and tropomyosin; thick filament proteins, myosin binding protein C; and the elastic protein, titin, that connects the thin and thick filaments. Furthermore, the order and 3D organization of the myofilament lattice may be important per se for contractile function. It is possible to model muscle contraction based on actin and myosin alone with properties derived in studies using single molecules and biochemical solution kinetics. It is also possible to reproduce several features of muscle contraction in experiments using only isolated actin and myosin, arguing against the importance of order and accessory proteins. Therefore, in this paper, it is hypothesized that “single molecule actomyosin properties account for the contractile properties of a half sarcomere during shortening and isometric contraction at almost saturating Ca concentrations”. In this paper, existing evidence for and against this hypothesis is reviewed and new modeling results to support the arguments are presented. Finally, further experimental tests are proposed, which if they corroborate, at least approximately, the hypothesis, should significantly benefit future effective analysis of a range of experimental studies, as well as drug discovery efforts.

Functional significance of HCM mutants of tropomyosin, V95A and D175N, studied with in vitro motility assays

The majority of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) is caused by mutations in sarcomere proteins. We examined tropomyosin (Tpm)’s HCM mutants in humans, V95A and D175N, with in vitro motility assay using optical tweezers to evaluate the effects of the Tpm mutations on the actomyosin interaction at the single molecular level. Thin filaments were reconstituted using these Tpm mutants, and their sliding velocity and force were measured at varying Ca²⁺ concentrations. Our results indicate that the sliding velocity at pCa ≥8.0 was significantly increased in mutants, which is expected to cause a diastolic problem. The velocity that can be activated by Ca²⁺ decreased significantly in mutants causing a systolic problem. With sliding force, Ca²⁺ activatable force decreased in V95A and increased in D175N, which may cause a systolic problem. Our results further demonstrate that the duty ratio determined at the steady state of force generation in saturating [Ca²⁺] decreased in V95A and increased in D175N. The Ca²⁺ sensitivity and cooperativity were not significantly affected by the mutations. These results suggest that the two mutants modulate molecular processes of the actomyosin interaction differently, but to result in the same pathology known as HCM.

The immediate effect of HCM causing actin mutants E99K and A230V on actin-Tm-myosin interaction in thin-filament reconstituted myocardium

Human cardiac actin mutants E99K and A230V were expressed with baculovirus/insect cells and used to reconstitute the thin-filament of bovine cardiac (BVC) muscle fibers, together with tropomyosin (Tm) and troponin (Tn) purified from bovine ventricles. Effects of [Ca(2+)], [ATP], and [phosphate] on tension and its transients were studied at 25°C. In the absence of Tm/Tn, both mutants significantly decreased the tension of actin filament reconstituted fibers (WT: 0.75±0.06 T0, E99K: 0.58±0.04 T0, A230V: 0.58±0.03 T0), where T0 is active tension of native fibers (T0=26.9±1.1kPa, N=41), indicating diminished actin-myosin interactions. However, in the presence of Tm and Tn, WT, E99K, and A230V recovered tension (0.85±0.06 T0, 0.89±0.06 T0, and 0.85±0.05 T0, respectively), demonstrating the compensatory effect of Tm/Tn. Ca(2+) sensitivity (pCa50) increased (5.59±0.02, 5.80±0.03, 5.77±0.03, respectively) and cooperativity (nH) decreased (2.6±0.3, 1.87±0.21, 1.60±0.11, respectively). The kinetic constants of the cross-bridge cycle were deduced using sinusoidal analysis. E99K did not show any significant changes in any of the kinetic constants compared to those of WT. A230V caused a decrease in K1 (ATP association constant), k2 and k-2 (rate constants of the cross-bridge detachment step). The cross-bridge distribution was similar among WT, E99K, and A230V. In conclusion, our experiments demonstrate that the first step of HCM pathogenesis with E99K is increased pCa50 and decreased nH, which result in larger tension during partial activation to cause a diastolic problem. The effect on nH is more severe with A230V. In addition, A230V has a problem of decreased cross-bridge kinetics, which affects the normal functions of the cross-bridge cycle and may contribute to the first step of the HCM pathogenesis.

Using baculovirus/insect cell expressed recombinant actin to study the molecular pathogenesis of HCM caused by actin mutation A331P

Recombinant WT human cardiac actin (WT actin) was expressed using the baculovirus/insect cell expression system, purified, and used to reconstitute the thin-filament of bovine cardiac muscle fibers, together with bovine cardiac tropomyosin (Tm) and troponin (Tn). Effects of [Ca(2+)], [ATP], [phosphate] and [ADP] on tension and tension transients were studied at 25°C by using sinusoidal analysis, and the results were compared with those of native fibers and fibers reconstituted with purified bovine cardiac actin (BVC actin). In actin filament reconstituted fibers (without Tm/Tn), those reconstituted with WT actin showed exactly the same active tension as those reconstituted with purified BVC actin (WT: 0.75±0.06 T0, N=11; BVC: 0.73±0.07 T0, N=12, where T0 is the tension of original fibers before extraction). After Tm/Tn reconstitution, fibers reconstituted with WT actin generated 0.85±0.06 T0 (N=11) compared to 0.98±0.04 T0 (N=12) recovered by those reconstituted with BVC actin. In the presence of Tm/Tn, WT actin reconstituted fibers showed exactly the same Ca(2+) sensitivity as those of the native fibers and BVC actin reconstituted fibers (pCa50: native fibers: 5.69±0.01, N=10; WT: 5.69±0.02, N=11; BVC: 5.68±0.02, N=12). Sinusoidal analysis showed that the cross-bridge kinetics were the same among native fibers, BVC actin reconstituted fibers and WT actin reconstituted fibers, followed by reconstitution of Tm/Tn. These results demonstrate that baculovirus/insect cell expressed actin has no significant differences from tissue purified actin and can be used for thin-filament reconstitution assays. One hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) causing actin mutant A331P actin was also expressed and studied similarly, and the results were compared to those of the WT actin. In the reconstituted fibers, A331P significantly decreased the tension both in the absence of Tm/Tn (0.55±0.03 T0, N=13) and in their presence (0.65±0.02 T0, N=13) compared to those of the WT (0.75±0.06 T0 and 0.85±0.06 T0, respectively, N=11). A331P also showed decreased pCa50 (5.57±0.03, N=13) compared to that of WT (5.69±0.02, N=11). The cross-bridge kinetics and its distribution were similar between WT and A331P actin reconstituted fibers, indicating that force/cross-bridge was decreased by A331P. In conclusion, A331P causes a weakened cross-bridge force, which leads to a decreased active tension, reduces left-ventricular ejection fraction, and eventually results in the HCM phenotype.

Analysis of the molecular pathogenesis of cardiomyopathy-causing cTnT mutants I79N, ΔE96, and ΔK210

Three troponin T (TnT) mutants that cause hypertrophic, restrictive, and dilated cardiomyopathy (I79N, ΔE96, and ΔK210, respectively), were examined using the thin-filament extraction/reconstitution technique. Effects of Ca(2+), ATP, phosphate, and ADP concentrations on force and its transients were studied at 25°C. Maximal Ca(2+) tension (THC) and Ca(2+)-activatable tension (Tact), respectively, were similar among I79N, ΔE96, and WT, whereas ΔK210 led to a significantly lower THC (∼20% less) and Tact (∼25% less) than did WT. In pCa solution containing 8 mM Pi and ionic strength adjusted to 200 mM, the Ca(2+) sensitivity (pCa50) of I79N (5.63 ± 0.02) and ΔE96 (5.60 ± 0.03) was significantly greater than that of WT (5.45 ± 0.04), but the pCa50 of ΔK210 (5.54 ± 0.04) remained similar to that of WT. Five equilibrium constants were deduced using sinusoidal analysis. All three mutants showed significantly lower K0 (ADP association constant) and larger K4 (equilibrium constant of force generation step) relative to the corresponding values for WT. I79N and ΔK210 were associated with a K2 (equilibrium constant of cross-bridge detachment step) significantly lower than that of ΔE96 and WT. These results demonstrated that at pCa 4.66, the force/cross-bridge is ∼18% less in I79N and ∼41% less in ΔK210 than that in WT. These results indicate that the molecular pathogenesis of the cardiac TnT mutation-related cardiomyopathies is different for each mutation.

A study of tropomyosin's role in cardiac function and disease using thin-filament reconstituted myocardium

Tropomyosin (Tm) is the key regulatory component of the thin-filament and plays a central role in the cardiac muscle's cooperative activation mechanism. Many mutations of cardiac Tm are related to hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM), dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM), and left ventricular noncompaction (LVNC). Using the thin-filament extraction/reconstitution technique, we are able to incorporate various Tm mutants and protein isoforms into a muscle fiber environment to study their roles in Ca(2+) regulation, cross-bridge kinetics, and force generation. The thin-filament reconstitution technique poses several advantages compared to other in vitro and in vivo methods: (1) Tm mutants and isoforms are placed into the real muscle fiber environment to exhibit their effect on a level much higher than simple protein complexes; (2) only the primary and immediate effects of Tm mutants are studied in the thin-filament reconstituted myocardium; (3) lethal mutants of Tm can be studied without causing a problem; and (4) inexpensive. In transgenic models, various secondary effects (myocyte disarray, ECM fibrosis, altered protein phosphorylation levels, etc.) also affect the performance of the myocardium, making it very difficult to isolate the primary effect of the mutation. Our studies on Tm have demonstrated that: (1) Tm positively enhances the hydrophobic interaction between actin and myosin in the "closed state", which in turn enhances the isometric tension; (2) Tm's seven periodical repeats carry distinct functions, with the 3rd period being essential for the tension enhancement; (3) Tm mutants lead to HCM by impairing the relaxation on one hand, and lead to DCM by over inhibition of the AM interaction on the other hand. Ca(2+) sensitivity is affected by inorganic phosphate, ionic strength, and phosphorylation of constituent proteins; hence it may not be the primary cause of the pathogenesis. Here, we review our current knowledge regarding Tm's effect on the actomyosin interaction and the early molecular pathogenesis of Tm mutation related to HCM, DCM, and LVNC.

The nemaline myopathy-causing E117K mutation in β-tropomyosin reduces thin filament activation

The effect of the nemaline myopathy-causing E117K mutation in β-tropomyosin (TM) on the structure and function of this regulatory protein was studied. The E117K mutant was found to have indistinguishable actin affinity compared with wild-type (WT) and similar secondary structure as measured by circular dichroism. However the E117K mutation significantly lowered maximum activation of actomyosin ATPase. To explain the molecular mechanism of impaired ATPase activation, WT and E117K TMs were covalently labeled at Cys-36 with 5-iodoacetimido-fluorescein and incorporated into ghost muscle fibers. The changes in the position and flexibility of tropomyosin strands on the thin filaments were observed at simulation of weak and strong binding states of actomyosin at high or low Ca(2+) by polarized fluorescence techniques. The E117K mutation was found to shift the tropomyosin strands towards the closed position and restrict the tropomyosin displacement during the transformation of actomyosin from weak to strong binding state thus leading to a reduction in thin filament activation.

DCM-related tropomyosin mutants E40K/E54K over-inhibit the actomyosin interaction and lead to a decrease in the number of cycling cross-bridges

Two DCM mutants (E40K and E54K) of tropomyosin (Tm) were examined using the thin-filament extraction/reconstitu­tion technique. The effects of the Ca²⁺, ATP, phos­phate (Pi), and ADP concentrations on isometric tension and its transients were studied at 25°C, and the results were com­pared to those for the WT protein. Our results indicate that both E40K and E54K have a significantly lower T_HC (high Ca²⁺ ten­sion at pCa 4.66) (E40K: 1.21±0.06 T_a, ±SEM, N = 34; E54K: 1.24±0.07 T_a, N = 28), a significantly lower T_LC (low- Ca²⁺ tension at pCa 7.0) (E40K: 0.07±0.02 T_a, N = 34; E54K: 0.06±0.02 T_a, N = 28), and a significantly lower T_act (Ca²⁺ activatable tension) (T_act = T_HC–T_LC, E40K: 1.15±0.08 T_a, N = 34; E54K: 1.18±0.06 T_a, N = 28) than WT (T_HC = 1.53±0.07 T_a, T_LC = 0.12±0.01 T_a, T_act = 1.40±0.07 T_a, N = 25). All tensions were normalized to T_a ( = 13.9±0.8 kPa, N = 57), the ten­sion of actin-filament reconstituted cardiac fibers (myocardium) under the standard activating conditions. The Ca²⁺ sensitivity (pCa₅₀) of E40K (5.23±0.02, N = 34) and E54K (5.24±0.03, N = 28) was similar to that of the WT protein (5.26±0.03, N = 25). The cooper­a­tivity increased significantly in E54K (3.73±0.25, N = 28) compared to WT (2.80±0.17, N = 25). Seven kinetic constants were deduced using sinusoidal analysis at pCa 4.66. These results enabled us to calculate the cross-bridge distribution in the strongly attached states, and thereby deduce the force/cross-bridge. The results indicate that the force/cross-bridge is ∼15% less in E54K than WT, but remains similar to that of the WT protein in the case of E40K. We conclude that over-inhibition of the actomyosin interaction by E40K and E54K Tm mutants leads to a decreased force-generating ability at systole, which is the main mechanism underlying the early pathogenesis of DCM.

Evolving concepts on the age-related changes in "muscle quality"

The deterioration of skeletal muscle with advancing age has long been anecdotally recognized and has been of scientific interest for more than 150 years. Over the past several decades, the scientific and medical communities have recognized that skeletal muscle dysfunction (e.g., muscle weakness, poor muscle coordination, etc.) is a debilitating and life-threatening condition in the elderly. For example, the age-associated loss of muscle strength is highly associated with both mortality and physical disability. It is well-accepted that voluntary muscle force production is not solely dependent upon muscle size, but rather results from a combination of neurologic and skeletal muscle factors, and that biologic properties of both of these systems are altered with aging. Accordingly, numerous scientists and clinicians have used the term "muscle quality" to describe the relationship between voluntary muscle strength and muscle size. In this review article, we discuss the age-associated changes in the neuromuscular system-starting at the level of the brain and proceeding down to the subcellular level of individual muscle fibers-that are potentially influential in the etiology of dynapenia (age-related loss of muscle strength and power).

The effect of the Asp175Asn and Glu180Gly TPM1 mutations on actin-myosin interaction during the ATPase cycle

Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM), characterized by cardiac hypertrophy and contractile dysfunction, is a major cause of heart failure. HCM can result from mutations in the gene encoding cardiac α-tropomyosin (TM). To understand how the HCM-causing Asp175Asn and Glu180Gly mutations in α-tropomyosin affect on actin-myosin interaction during the ATPase cycle, we labeled the SH1 helix of myosin subfragment-1 and the actin subdomain-1 with the fluorescent probe N-iodoacetyl-N'-(5-sulfo-1-naphtylo)ethylenediamine. These proteins were incorporated into ghost muscle fibers and their conformational states were monitored during the ATPase cycle by measuring polarized fluorescence. For the first time, the effect of these α-tropomyosins on the mobility and rotation of subdomain-1 of actin and the SH1 helix of myosin subfragment-1 during the ATP hydrolysis cycle have been demonstrated directly by polarized fluorimetry. Wild-type α-tropomyosin increases the amplitude of the SH1 helix and subdomain-1 movements during the ATPase cycle, indicating the enhancement of the efficiency of the work of cross-bridges. Both mutant TMs increase the proportion of the strong-binding sub-states, with the effect of the Glu180Gly mutation being greater than that of Asp175Asn. It is suggested that the alteration in the concerted conformational changes of actomyosin is likely to provide the structural basis for the altered cardiac muscle contraction.

Thin filament-reconstituted skinned muscle fibers for the study of muscle physiology

We review the use of thin filament-reconstituted muscle fibers in the study of muscle physiology. Thin filament extraction and reconstitution protocol is a powerful technique to study the role of each component of the thin filament. It is also useful for studying the properties of genetically modified molecules such as actin and tropomyosin. We also review the combination of this protocol with sinusoidal analysis, which will provide a solid technique for determining the effect of regulatory proteins on actomyosin interaction and concomitant cross-bridge kinetics. We suggest that thin filament-reconstituted muscle fibers are an ideal system for studying muscle physiology especially when gene modifications of actin or tropomyosin are involved.

The role of tropomyosin domains in cooperative activation of the actin-myosin interaction

To establish α-tropomyosin (Tm)'s structure-function relationships in cooperative regulation of muscle contraction, thin filaments were reconstituted with a variety of Tm mutants (Δ2Tm, Δ3Tm, Δ6Tm, P2sTm, P3sTm, P2P3sTm, P1P5Tm, and wtTm), and force and sliding velocity of the thin filament were studied using an in vitro motility assay. In the case of deletion mutants, Δ indicates which of the quasi-equivalent repeats in Tm was deleted. In the case of period (P) mutants, an Ala cluster was introduced into the indicated period to strengthen the Tm-actin interaction. In P1P5Tm, the N-terminal half of period 5 was substituted with that of period 1 to test the quasi-equivalence of these two Tm periods. The reconstitution included bovine cardiac troponin. Deletion studies revealed that period 3 is important for the positive cooperative effect of Tm on actin filament regulation and that period 2 also contributes to this effect at low ionic strength, but to a lesser degree. Furthermore, Tm with one extra Ala cluster at period 2 (P2s) or period 3 (P3s) did not increase force or velocity, whereas Tm with two extra Ala clusters (P2P3s) increased both force and velocity, demonstrating interaction between these periods. Most mutants did not move in the absence of Ca(2+). Notable exceptions were Δ6Tm and P1P5Tm, which moved near at the full velocity, but with reduced force, which indicate impaired relaxation. These results are consistent with the mechanism that the Tm-actin interaction cooperatively affects actin to result in generation of greater force and velocity.

Enhanced active cross-bridges during diastole: molecular pathogenesis of tropomyosin's HCM mutations

Three HCM-causing tropomyosin (Tm) mutants (V95A, D175N, and E180G) were examined using the thin-filament extraction and reconstitution technique. The effects of Ca(2+), ATP, phosphate, and ADP concentrations on cross-bridge kinetics in myocardium reconstituted with each of these mutants were studied at 25°C, and compared to wild-type (WT) Tm at physiological ionic strength (200 mM). All three mutants showed significantly higher (2-3.5 fold) low Ca(2+) tension (T(LC)) and stiffness than WT at pCa 8.0. High Ca(2+) tension (T(HC)) was significantly higher for E180G than that for WT, whereas T(HC) of V95A and D175N was similar to WT; high Ca(2+) stiffness (Y(HC)) had the same trend. The Ca(2+) sensitivity of isometric force was significantly greater for V95A and E180G than for WT, whereas that of D175N remained the same as for WT; for all mutants, cooperativity was lower than for WT. Nine kinetic constants and the cross-bridge distribution were deduced using sinusoidal analysis. The number of force-generating cross bridges was similar among the D175N, E180G, and WT Tm forms, but it was significantly larger in the case of V95A than WT. We conclude that the increased number of actively cycling cross bridges at pCa 8 is the major cause of Tm mutation-related HCM pathogenesis, which may result in diastolic dysfunction. Decreased contractility (T(act)) in V95A and D175N may further contribute to the severity of myocyte hypertrophy and related prognosis of the disease.

Cardiac troponin T, a sarcomeric AKAP, tethers protein kinase A at the myofilaments

Efficient and specific phosphorylation of PKA substrates, elicited in response to β-adrenergic stimulation, require spatially confined pools of PKA anchored in proximity of its substrates. PKA-dependent phosphorylation of cardiac sarcomeric proteins has been the subject of intense investigations. Yet, the identity, composition, and function of PKA complexes at the sarcomeres have remained elusive. Here we report the identification and characterization of a novel sarcomeric AKAP (A-kinase anchoring protein), cardiac troponin T (cTnT). Using yeast two-hybrid technology in screening two adult human heart cDNA libraries, we identified the regulatory subunit of PKA as interacting with human cTnT bait. Immunoprecipitation studies show that cTnT is a dual specificity AKAP, interacting with both PKA-regulatory subunits type I and II. The disruptor peptide Ht31, but not Ht31P (control), abolished cTnT/PKA-R association. Truncations and point mutations identified an amphipathic helix domain in cTnT as the PKA binding site. This was confirmed by a peptide SPOT assay in the presence of Ht31 or Ht31P (control). Gelsolin-dependent removal of thin filament proteins also reduced myofilament-bound PKA-type II. Using a cTn exchange procedure that substitutes the endogenous cTn complex with a recombinant cTn complex we show that PKA-type II is troponin-bound in the myofilament lattice. Displacement of PKA-cTnT complexes correlates with a significant decrease in myofibrillar PKA activity. Taken together, our data propose a novel role for cTnT as a dual-specificity sarcomeric AKAP.

The role of tropomyosin isoforms and phosphorylation in force generation in thin-filament reconstituted bovine cardiac muscle fibres

The thin filament extraction and reconstitution protocol was used to investigate the functional roles of tropomyosin (Tm) isoforms and phosphorylation in bovine myocardium. The thin filament was extracted by gelsolin, reconstituted with G-actin, and further reconstituted with cardiac troponin together with one of three Tm varieties: phosphorylated alphaTm (alphaTm.P), dephosphorylated alphaTm (alphaTm.deP), and dephosphorylated betaTm (betaTm.deP). The effects of Ca, phosphate, MgATP and MgADP concentrations were examined in the reconstituted fibres at pH 7.0 and 25 degrees C. Our data show that Ca(2+) sensitivity (pCa(50): half saturation point) was increased by 0.19 +/- 0.07 units when betaTm.deP was used instead of alphaTm.deP (P < 0.05), and by 0.27 +/- 0.06 units when phosphorylated alphaTm was used (P < 0.005). The cooperativity (Hill factor) decreased (but insignificantly) from 3.2 +/- 0.3 (5) to 2.8 +/- 0.2 (7) with phosphorylation. The cooperativity decreased significantly from 3.2 +/- 0.3 (5) to 2.1 +/- 0.2 (9) with isoform change from alphaTm.deP to betaTm.deP. There was no significant difference in isometric tension or stiffness between alphaTm.P, alphaTm.deP, and betaTm.deP muscle fibres at saturating [Ca(2+)] or after rigor induction. Based on the six-state cross-bridge model, sinusoidal analysis indicated that the equilibrium constants of elementary steps differed up to 1.7x between alphaTm.deP and betaTm.deP, and up to 2.0x between alphaTm.deP and alphaTm.P. The rate constants differed up to 1.5x between alphaTm.deP and betaTm.deP, and up to 2.4x between alphaTm.deP and alphaTm.P. We conclude that tension and stiffness per cross-bridge are not significantly different among the three muscle models.

Tropomyosin period 3 is essential for enhancement of isometric tension in thin filament-reconstituted bovine myocardium

Tropomyosin (Tm) consists of 7 quasiequivalent repeats known as "periods," and its specific function may be associated with these periods. To test the hypothesis that either period 2 or 3 promotes force generation by inducing a positive allosteric effect on actin, we reconstituted the thin filament with mutant Tm in which either period 2 (Delta2Tm) or period 3 (Delta3Tm) was deleted. We then studied: isometric tension, stiffness, 6 kinetic constants, and the pCa-tension relationship. N-terminal acetylation of Tm did not cause any differences. The isometric tension in Delta2Tm remained unchanged, and was reduced to approximately 60% in Delta3Tm. Although the kinetic constants underwent small changes, the occupancy of strongly attached cross-bridges was not much different. The Hill factor (cooperativity) did not differ significantly between Delta2Tm (1.79 +/- 0.19) and the control (1.73 +/- 0.21), or Delta3Tm (1.35 +/- 0.22) and the control. In contrast, pCa(50) decreased slightly in Delta2Tm (5.11 +/- 0.07), and increased significantly in Delta3Tm (5.57 +/- 0.09) compared to the control (5.28 +/- 0.04). These results demonstrate that, when ions are present at physiological concentrations in the muscle fiber system, period 3 (but not period 2) is essential for the positive allosteric effect that enhances the interaction between actin and myosin, and increases isometric force of each cross-bridge.

Regulatory mechanism of smooth muscle contraction studied with gelsolin-treated strips of taenia caeci in guinea pig

The potential roles of the regulatory proteins actin, tropomyosin (Tm), and caldesmon (CaD), i.e., the components of the thin filament, in smooth muscle have been extensively studied in several types of smooth muscles. However, controversy remains on the putative physiological significance of these proteins. In this study, we intended to determine the functional roles of Tm and CaD in the regulation of smooth muscle contraction by using a reconstitution system of the thin filaments. At appropriate conditions, the thin (actin) filaments within skinned smooth muscle strips of taenia caeci in guinea pigs could be selectively removed by an actin-severing protein, gelsolin, without irreversible damage to the contractile apparatus, and then the thin filaments were reconstituted with purified components of thin filaments, i.e., actin, Tm, and CaD. We found that the structural remodeling of actin filaments or thin filaments was functionally linked to the Ca2+-induced force development and reduction in muscle cross-sectional area (CSA). That is, after the reconstitution of the gelsolin-treated skinned smooth muscle strips with pure actin, the Ca2+-dependent force development was partially restored, but the Ca2+-induced reduction in CSA occurred once. In contrast, the reconstitution with actin, followed by Tm and CaD, restored not only the force generation but also both its Ca2+sensitivity and the reversible Ca2+-dependent reduction in CSA. We confirmed that both removal of the thin filaments by gelsolin treatment and reconstitution of the actin (thin) filaments with Tm and CaD caused no significant changes in the level of myosin regulatory light chain phosphorylation. We thus conclude that Tm and CaD are necessary for the full regulation of smooth muscle contraction in addition to the other regulatory systems, including the myosin-linked one.

Regulation of muscle contraction by Ca2+ and ADP: focusing on the auto-oscillation (SPOC)

A molecular motor in striated muscle, myosin II, is a non-processive motor that is unable to perform physiological functions as a single molecule and acts as an assembly of molecules. It is widely accepted that a myosin II motor is an independent force generator; the force generated at a steady state is usually considered to be a simple sum of those generated by each motor. This is the case at full activation (pCa < 5 in the presence of MgATP); however, we found that the myosin II motors show cooperative functions, i.e., non-linear auto-oscillation, named SPOC (SPontaneous Oscillatory Contraction), when the activation level is intermediate between those of contraction and relaxation (that is, at the intermediate level of pCa, 5-6, for cardiac muscle, or at the coexistence of MgATP, MgADP and inorganic phosphate (Pi) at higher pCa (> 7) for both skeletal and cardiac muscles). Here, we summarize the characteristics of SPOC phenomena, especially focusing on the physiological significance of SPOC in cardiac muscle. We propose a new concept that the auto-oscillatory property, which is inherent to the contractile system of cardiac muscle, underlies the molecular mechanism of heartbeat. Additionally, we briefly describe the dynamic properties of the thin filaments, i.e., the Ca(2+)-dependent flexibility change of the thin filaments, which may be the basis for the SPOC phenomena. We also describe a newly developed experimental system named "bio-nanomuscle," in which tension is asserted on a single reconstituted thin filament by interacting with crossbridges in the A-band composed of the thick filament lattice. This newly devised hybrid system is expected to fill the gap between the single-molecule level and the muscle system.

Temperature-dependence of isometric tension and cross-bridge kinetics of cardiac muscle fibers reconstituted with a tropomyosin internal deletion mutant

The effect of temperature on isometric tension and cross-bridge kinetics was studied with a tropomyosin (Tm) internal deletion mutant AS-Delta23Tm (Ala-Ser-Tm Delta(47-123)) in bovine cardiac muscle fibers by using the thin filament extraction and reconstitution technique. The results are compared with those from actin reconstituted alone, cardiac muscle-derived control acetyl-Tm, and recombinant control AS-Tm. In all four reconstituted muscle groups, isometric tension and stiffness increased linearly with temperature in the range 5-40 degrees C for fibers activated in the presence of saturating ATP and Ca(2+). The slopes of the temperature-tension plots of the two controls were very similar, whereas the slope derived from fibers with actin alone had approximately 40% the control value, and the slope from mutant Tm had approximately 36% the control value. Sinusoidal analysis was performed to study the temperature dependence of cross-bridge kinetics. All three exponential processes A, B, and C were identified in the high temperature range (30-40 degrees C); only processes B and C were identified in the mid-temperature range (15-25 degrees C), and only process C was identified in the low temperature range (5-10 degrees C). At a given temperature, similar apparent rate constants (2pia, 2pib, 2pic) were observed in all four muscle groups, whereas their magnitudes were markedly less in the order of AS-Delta23Tm < Actin < AS-Tm approximately Acetyl-Tm groups. Our observations are consistent with the hypothesis that Tm enhances hydrophobic and stereospecific interactions (positive allosteric effect) between actin and myosin, but Delta23Tm decreases these interactions (negative allosteric effect). Our observations further indicate that tension/cross-bridge is increased by Tm, but is diminished by Delta23Tm. We conclude that Tm affects the conformation of actin so as to increase the area of hydrophobic interaction between actin and myosin molecules.