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Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-Activating Polypeptide (PACAP) in Physiological and Pathological Processes within the Gastrointestinal Tract: A Review. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22168682. [PMID: 34445388 PMCID: PMC8395522 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22168682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2021] [Revised: 08/08/2021] [Accepted: 08/09/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) is a neuropeptide widely distributed in the central nervous system (CNS) and many peripheral organs, such as the digestive tract, endocrine, reproductive and respiratory systems, where it plays different regulatory functions and exerts a cytoprotective effect. The multifarious physiological effects of PACAP are mediated through binding to different G protein-coupled receptors, including PAC1 (PAC1-R), VPAC1 (VPAC1-R) and VPAC2 (VPAC2-R) receptors. In the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, PACAP plays an important regulatory function. PACAP stimulates the secretion of digestive juices and hormone release, regulates smooth muscle contraction, local blood flow, cell migration and proliferation. Additionally, there are many reports confirming the involvement of PACAP in pathological processes within the GI tract, including inflammatory states, neuronal injury, diabetes, intoxication and neoplastic processes. The purpose of this review is to summarize the distribution and pleiotropic action of PACAP in the control of GI tract function and its cytoprotective effect in the course of GI tract disorders.
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Fábián E, Horváth G, Opper B, Atlasz T, Tóth G, Reglődi D. PACAP is Protective Against Cellular Stress in Retinal Pigment Epithelial Cells. Int J Pept Res Ther 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s10989-021-10162-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
AbstractThe integrity of the innermost, pigment epithelial layer of the retina is crucial for the photoreceptor survival and for maintaining the outer blood–retina barrier. In several ocular degenerations, such as diabetic retinopathy or macular edema, the stress caused by various harmful stimuli (hypoxia, oxidative stress, hyperosmosis) lead to severe molecular biological changes in this layer, promoting neovascularization of the retina. Pituitary adenylate cyclase activating polypeptide (PACAP) occurs throughout the whole body, including the eye. It has numerous functions in the retina, including the previously described anti-apoptotic and anti-angiogenic effects in retinal pigment epithelial cells. The aim of this present study was to investigate the influence of PACAP on different stress factors. In accordance with previous findings, PACAP significantly ameliorated the increased Hif1-α levels in hypoxic conditions. In H2O2-induced oxidative stress PACAP had an anti-apoptotic effect, it could decrease the expression of cytochrome-c and p53, while it upregulated the concentration of three antioxidants, namely SOD2, PON2 and thioredoxin. In conclusion, we provided new information on the molecular biological background of the retinoprotective effect of PACAP.
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D’Amico AG, Maugeri G, Musumeci G, Reglodi D, D’Agata V. PACAP and NAP: Effect of Two Functionally Related Peptides in Diabetic Retinopathy. J Mol Neurosci 2021; 71:1525-1535. [DOI: 10.1007/s12031-020-01769-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2020] [Accepted: 11/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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Rodríguez Villanueva J, Martín Esteban J, Rodríguez Villanueva LJ. Retinal Cell Protection in Ocular Excitotoxicity Diseases. Possible Alternatives Offered by Microparticulate Drug Delivery Systems and Future Prospects. Pharmaceutics 2020; 12:pharmaceutics12020094. [PMID: 31991667 PMCID: PMC7076407 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics12020094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2019] [Revised: 01/17/2020] [Accepted: 01/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Excitotoxicity seems to play a critical role in ocular neurodegeneration. Excess-glutamate-mediated retinal ganglion cells death is the principal cause of cell loss. Uncontrolled glutamate in the synapsis has significant implications in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative disorders. The exploitation of various approaches of controlled release systems enhances the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic activity of drugs. In particular, microparticles are secure, can maintain therapeutic drug concentrations in the eye for prolonged periods, and make intimate contact by improving drug bioavailability. According to the promising results reported, possible new investigations will focus intense attention on microparticulate formulations and can be expected to open the field to new alternatives for doctors, as currently required by patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Javier Rodríguez Villanueva
- Human resources for I+D+i Department, National Institute for Agricultural and Food Research and Technology, Ctra. de la Coruña (Autovía A6) Km. 7.5, 28040 Madrid, Spain
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +34-91-347-4158
| | - Jorge Martín Esteban
- University of Alcalá, Ctra. de Madrid-Barcelona (Autovía A2) Km. 33,600, 28805 Alcalá de Henares, Madrid, Spain; (J.M.E.); (L.J.R.V.)
| | - Laura J. Rodríguez Villanueva
- University of Alcalá, Ctra. de Madrid-Barcelona (Autovía A2) Km. 33,600, 28805 Alcalá de Henares, Madrid, Spain; (J.M.E.); (L.J.R.V.)
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Chen HL, Cheng JY, Yang YF, Li Y, Jiang XH, Yang L, Wu L, Shi M, Liu B, Duan J, Li X, Li QW. Phospholipase C inhibits apoptosis of porcine oocytes cultured in vitro. J Cell Biochem 2020; 121:3547-3559. [DOI: 10.1002/jcb.29636] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2019] [Accepted: 12/09/2019] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hua Li Chen
- College of Animal Science and TechnologyNorthwest A&F UniversityYangling Shaanxi China
| | - Jian Yong Cheng
- College of Animal Science and TechnologyNorthwest A&F UniversityYangling Shaanxi China
| | - You Fu Yang
- College of Animal Science and TechnologyNorthwest A&F UniversityYangling Shaanxi China
| | - Yuan Li
- College of Animal Science and TechnologyNorthwest A&F UniversityYangling Shaanxi China
| | - Xiao Han Jiang
- College of Animal Science and TechnologyNorthwest A&F UniversityYangling Shaanxi China
| | - Li Yang
- College of Animal Science and TechnologyNorthwest A&F UniversityYangling Shaanxi China
| | - Lin Wu
- College of Animal Science and TechnologyNorthwest A&F UniversityYangling Shaanxi China
| | - Meihong Shi
- College of Animal Science and TechnologyNorthwest A&F UniversityYangling Shaanxi China
| | - Boyang Liu
- College of Animal Science and TechnologyNorthwest A&F UniversityYangling Shaanxi China
| | - Jiaxin Duan
- College of Animal Science and TechnologyNorthwest A&F UniversityYangling Shaanxi China
| | - Xiaoya Li
- College of Animal Science and TechnologyNorthwest A&F UniversityYangling Shaanxi China
| | - Qing Wang Li
- College of Animal Science and TechnologyNorthwest A&F UniversityYangling Shaanxi China
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Rossino MG, Dal Monte M, Casini G. Relationships Between Neurodegeneration and Vascular Damage in Diabetic Retinopathy. Front Neurosci 2019; 13:1172. [PMID: 31787868 PMCID: PMC6856056 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2019.01172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2019] [Accepted: 10/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is a common complication of diabetes and constitutes a major cause of vision impairment and blindness in the world. DR has long been described exclusively as a microvascular disease of the eye. However, in recent years, a growing interest has been focused on the contribution of neuroretinal degeneration to the pathogenesis of the disease, and there are observations suggesting that neuronal death in the early phases of DR may favor the development of microvascular abnormalities, followed by the full manifestation of the disease. However, the mediators that are involved in the crosslink between neurodegeneration and vascular changes have not yet been identified. According to our hypothesis, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) could probably be the most important connecting link between the death of retinal neurons and the occurrence of microvascular lesions. Indeed, VEGF is known to play important neuroprotective actions; therefore, in the early phases of DR, it may be released in response to neuronal suffering, and it would act as a double-edged weapon inducing both neuroprotective and vasoactive effects. If this hypothesis is correct, then any retinal stress causing neuronal damage should be accompanied by VEGF upregulation and by vascular changes. Similarly, any compound with neuroprotective properties should also induce VEGF downregulation and amelioration of the vascular lesions. In this review, we searched for a correlation between neurodegeneration and vasculopathy in animal models of retinal diseases, examining the effects of different neuroprotective substances, ranging from nutraceuticals to antioxidants to neuropeptides and others and showing that reducing neuronal suffering also prevents overexpression of VEGF and vascular complications. Taken together, the reviewed evidence highlights the crucial role played by mediators such as VEGF in the relationship between retinal neuronal damage and vascular alterations and suggests that the use of neuroprotective substances could be an efficient strategy to prevent the onset or to retard the development of DR.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Massimo Dal Monte
- Department of Biology, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy.,Interdepartmental Research Center Nutrafood "Nutraceuticals and Food for Health", University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Giovanni Casini
- Department of Biology, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy.,Interdepartmental Research Center Nutrafood "Nutraceuticals and Food for Health", University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
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Phospholipase C inhibits apoptosis of porcine primary granulosa cells cultured in vitro. J Ovarian Res 2019; 12:90. [PMID: 31554511 PMCID: PMC6761717 DOI: 10.1186/s13048-019-0567-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2019] [Accepted: 09/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Phospholipase C (PLC) can participate in cell proliferation, differentiation and aging. However, whether it has a function in apoptosis in porcine primary granulosa cells is largely uncertain. The objective of this study was to examine the effects of PLC on apoptosis of porcine primary granulosa cells cultured in vitro. The mRNA expression of BAK, BAX and CASP3, were upregulated in the cells treated with U73122 (the PLC inhibitor). The abundance of BCL2 mRNA, was upregulated, while BAX and CASP3 mRNA expression was decreased after treatment with m-3M3FBS (the PLC activator). Both the early and late apoptosis rate were maximized with 0.5 μM U73122 for 4 h. The rate of early apoptosis was the highest at 4 h and the rate of late apoptosis was the highest at 12 h in the m-3M3FBS group. The protein abundance of PLCβ1, protein kinase C β (PKCβ), calmodulin-dependent protein kinaseII α (CAMKIIα) and calcineurinA (CalnA) were decreased by U73122, and CAMKIIα protein abundance was increased by m-3M3FBS. The mRNA expression of several downstream genes (CDC42, NFATc1, and NFκB) was upregulated by PLC. Our results demonstrated that apoptosis can be inhibited by altering PLC signaling in porcine primary granulosa cells cultured in vitro, and several calcium-sensitive targets and several downstream genes might take part in the processes.
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Neuroprotective Peptides in Retinal Disease. J Clin Med 2019; 8:jcm8081146. [PMID: 31374938 PMCID: PMC6722704 DOI: 10.3390/jcm8081146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2019] [Revised: 07/26/2019] [Accepted: 07/31/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
In the pathogenesis of many disorders, neuronal death plays a key role. It is now assumed that neurodegeneration is caused by multiple and somewhat converging/overlapping death mechanisms, and that neurons are sensitive to unique death styles. In this respect, major advances in the knowledge of different types, mechanisms, and roles of neurodegeneration are crucial to restore the neuronal functions involved in neuroprotection. Several novel concepts have emerged recently, suggesting that the modulation of the neuropeptide system may provide an entirely new set of pharmacological approaches. Neuropeptides and their receptors are expressed widely in mammalian retinas, where they exert neuromodulatory functions including the processing of visual information. In multiple models of retinal diseases, different peptidergic substances play neuroprotective actions. Herein, we describe the novel advances on the protective roles of neuropeptides in the retina. In particular, we focus on the mechanisms by which peptides affect neuronal death/survival and the vascular lesions commonly associated with retinal neurodegenerative pathologies. The goal is to highlight the therapeutic potential of neuropeptide systems as neuroprotectants in retinal diseases.
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Ye D, Shi Y, Xu Y, Huang J. PACAP Attenuates Optic Nerve Crush-Induced Retinal Ganglion Cell Apoptosis Via Activation of the CREB-Bcl-2 Pathway. J Mol Neurosci 2019; 68:475-484. [PMID: 30993644 DOI: 10.1007/s12031-019-01309-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2019] [Accepted: 03/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Retinal ganglion cell (RGC) apoptosis is considered an important pathological hallmark of glaucoma. Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) is a pleiotropic peptide with potent neuroprotective properties. In our previous study, we found that the expression of PACAP and its high-affinity receptor PACAP receptor type 1 (PAC1R) increased markedly after optic nerve crush (ONC), and occurred mainly in the ganglion cell layer of the retina. This suggests that the upregulation of PACAP may play a vital role in inhibiting RGC death after ONC. Therefore, in the present study, we investigate the specific effects and underlying mechanism of PACAP in RGC death after ONC. Vehicle (physiological saline) or PACAP (1 nM to 200 nM) solution was injected into the vitreous body. Seven days later, the retinas were harvested, and the surviving RGCs were retrogradely labeled with Fluoro-Gold (FG; Fluorochrome) at different concentrations of PACAP. Immunofluorescence double staining and terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) assay were used to observe the effects of PACAP on RGC apoptosis. Our results showed that PACAP treatment inhibited caspase-3-mediated RGC apoptosis, promoted the phosphorylation of cAMP response element binding protein (CREB), up-regulated the expression of B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2), and ultimately improved RGC survival. These results suggest that PACAP may prevent RGC apoptosis after ONC via activation of CREB-mediated Bcl-2 transcription. The study thus contributes to a basic understanding of the mechanism by which PACAP decreased RGC apoptosis and provides a theoretical basis for future clinical application of PACAP in the treatment of glaucoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Ye
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, 7 Jinsui Road, Guangzhou, 510623, China
| | - Yuxun Shi
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, 7 Jinsui Road, Guangzhou, 510623, China
| | - Yue Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, 7 Jinsui Road, Guangzhou, 510623, China
| | - Jingjing Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, 7 Jinsui Road, Guangzhou, 510623, China.
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Ye D, Yang Y, Lu X, Xu Y, Shi Y, Chen H, Huang J. Spatiotemporal Expression Changes of PACAP and Its Receptors in Retinal Ganglion Cells After Optic Nerve Crush. J Mol Neurosci 2018; 68:465-474. [PMID: 30415445 DOI: 10.1007/s12031-018-1203-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2018] [Accepted: 10/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) has been demonstrated to play a crucial part in protecting retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) from apoptosis in various retinal injury animal models. PACAP has two basic groups of receptors: PACAP receptor type 1 (PAC1R) and vasoactive intestinal polypeptide/PACAP receptors (VPAC1R and VPAC2R). However, few studies illustrated the spatial and temporal expression changes of endogenous PACAP and its receptors in a rodent optic nerve crush (ONC) model. In this study, a significant upregulation of PACAP and PAC1R in the retina after ONC was observed in both protein and RNA levels. The peak level of PACAP and PAC1R expression could be found on the fifth day following ONC. In addition, immunofluorescent labeling indicated that PACAP and PAC1R were localized mainly in RGCs. On the contrary, VPAC1R and VPAC2R were hardly detected in the retina. Collectively, the spatiotemporal expression of PACAP and its high-affinity receptor PAC1R were remarkably changed after ONC, and mainly expressed in the ganglion cell layer of the retina. This suggested that the upregulation of PACAP and PAC1R may play a vital role in RGC death after ONC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Ye
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, 54 Xianlienan Road, Guangzhou, 510060, China
| | - Yao Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, 54 Xianlienan Road, Guangzhou, 510060, China
| | - Xi Lu
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, 54 Xianlienan Road, Guangzhou, 510060, China
| | - Yue Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, 54 Xianlienan Road, Guangzhou, 510060, China
| | - Yuxun Shi
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, 54 Xianlienan Road, Guangzhou, 510060, China
| | - Hailiu Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, 54 Xianlienan Road, Guangzhou, 510060, China
| | - Jingjing Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, 54 Xianlienan Road, Guangzhou, 510060, China.
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Protective effects of pituitary adenylate cyclase activating polypeptide against neurotoxic agents. Neurotoxicology 2018; 66:185-194. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuro.2018.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2017] [Revised: 03/09/2018] [Accepted: 03/27/2018] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
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Jerónimo-Santos A, Fonseca-Gomes J, Guimarães DA, Tanqueiro SR, Ramalho RM, Ribeiro JA, Sebastião AM, Diógenes MJ. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor mediates neuroprotection against Aβ-induced toxicity through a mechanism independent on adenosine 2A receptor activation. Growth Factors 2015; 33:298-308. [PMID: 26365294 DOI: 10.3109/08977194.2015.1080696] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) promotes neuronal survival through TrkB-FL activation. The activation of adenosine A2A receptors (A2AR) is essential for most of BDNF-mediated synaptic actions, such as synaptic plasticity, transmission and neurotransmitter release. We now aimed at evaluating the A2AR influence upon BDNF-mediated neuroprotection against Aβ25-35 toxicity in cultured neurons. Results showed that BDNF increases cell survival and reduces the caspase-3 and calpain activation induced by amyloid-β (Aβ) peptide, in a mechanism probably dependent on PLCγ pathway. This BDNF-mediated neuroprotection is not affected by A2AR activation or inhibition. Moreover neither activation nor inhibition of A2AR, per se, significantly influenced Aβ-induced neuronal death on calpain-mediated cleavage of TrkB induced by Aβ. In conclusion, these results suggest that, in opposition to the fast synaptic actions of BDNF, the neuroprotective actions of this neurotrophin against a strong Aβ insult do not require the activation of A2AR.
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Affiliation(s)
- André Jerónimo-Santos
- a Institute of Pharmacology and Neurosciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Lisbon , Lisbon , Portugal and
- b Instituto de Medicina Molecular, University of Lisbon , Lisbon , Portugal
| | - João Fonseca-Gomes
- a Institute of Pharmacology and Neurosciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Lisbon , Lisbon , Portugal and
- b Instituto de Medicina Molecular, University of Lisbon , Lisbon , Portugal
| | - Diogo Andrade Guimarães
- a Institute of Pharmacology and Neurosciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Lisbon , Lisbon , Portugal and
- b Instituto de Medicina Molecular, University of Lisbon , Lisbon , Portugal
| | - Sara Ramalho Tanqueiro
- a Institute of Pharmacology and Neurosciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Lisbon , Lisbon , Portugal and
- b Instituto de Medicina Molecular, University of Lisbon , Lisbon , Portugal
| | - Rita Mira Ramalho
- a Institute of Pharmacology and Neurosciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Lisbon , Lisbon , Portugal and
- b Instituto de Medicina Molecular, University of Lisbon , Lisbon , Portugal
| | - Joaquim Alexandre Ribeiro
- a Institute of Pharmacology and Neurosciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Lisbon , Lisbon , Portugal and
- b Instituto de Medicina Molecular, University of Lisbon , Lisbon , Portugal
| | - Ana Maria Sebastião
- a Institute of Pharmacology and Neurosciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Lisbon , Lisbon , Portugal and
- b Instituto de Medicina Molecular, University of Lisbon , Lisbon , Portugal
| | - Maria José Diógenes
- a Institute of Pharmacology and Neurosciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Lisbon , Lisbon , Portugal and
- b Instituto de Medicina Molecular, University of Lisbon , Lisbon , Portugal
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