Groups of Sexual Violence Perpetration in a National Sample of Youth 13-25 Years of Age

The Primary Prevention of Sexual Violence Against Adolescents in School and Community Settings: A Scoping Review

Sexual Violence (SV) is a public health problem with serious long-term consequences for victims. This scoping review aimed at summarizing the implementation, methodology, characteristics, and efficacy of SV prevention programs conducted in school and community settings with middle and high school students. This study also gathered recommendations for future research. Studies were searched in three databases: EBSCOHOST, SCOPUS and Web of Science. Eighty-six peer-reviewed empirical studies about SV prevention programs applied in school and community settings with samples of middle and high school students were analyzed. Most original studies (46.3%) used sexual violence outcomes, although many approached sexual violence in the context of dating violence (43.3%). Most SV prevention programs were applied in the U.S.A. although studies were identified across the globe. Prevention programs tend to reduce SV attitudes, perpetration, and victimization and to increase SV knowledge, as well as bystander attitudes and behaviors. The evidence reveals the efficacy of these programs, although future studies are needed to clarify the specificities of SV prevention. This article provides recommendations considering the measurement of SV outcomes, the role of technology, the involvement of adults and communities, the timing of interventions, sexual education, and reporting practices.

Bystanders to Sexual Violence: Findings From a National Sample of Sexual and Gender Diverse Adolescents

Mobilizing bystanders to prevent sexual violence is an increasingly popular prevention strategy. While research has identified characteristics related to opportunity and actions around helping, a more nuanced understanding of how helping behavior and its modifiable levers may differ for youth of various genders is needed. The current study examined bystander-helping behaviors in sexual violence situations in a national, social media-recruited sample of adolescents 14 to 16 years of age. Measures of opportunity and self-reported actions were included in an online survey along with items assessing attitudes related to violence and helping. Given that prevention programs may work differently for cisgender, transgender, and nonbinary young people, between-group differences in amount of opportunity and helping behaviors were examined. Further, we examined correlates of opportunities to help as well as helping behaviors within each group. Overall, few attitude and personal experience characteristics consistently predicted opportunities and behaviors across groups. Group differences that emerged, such as the association between attitudes supportive of rape and lower helping for cisgender but not trans or nonbinary youth, support attending to these group differences in both basic and intervention research to inform tailoring of prevention programs.

Malleable and Static Risk Factors Associated with Boys' Patterns of Interpersonal Violence: A Latent Class Analysis

Despite an increased risk of committing and experiencing violence among adolescent boys, little is known about either how different types of violence co-occur within individuals or their association with different risk factors. This study used a person-centered approach to (1) identify patterns in boys' perpetration and victimization across a range of 7 types of interpersonal violence (bullying, electronic aggression, sexual harassment/aggression; and psychological/ physical/sexual dating violence); and (2) examine the association of these patterns with 12 risk factors at the individual, relational, and community level to inform future prevention efforts. We used latent class analysis to identify patterns of violence among a diverse sample of 239 adolescent boys from 12 schools in 4 regions of the United States. Four classes were identified: The LOW-ALL group (36.4% of the sample) described boys unlikely to commit or experience any forms of violence. The PERP-MULTI group (20.9%) included boys with a high probability of committing bullying and sexual harassment and a relatively lower probability of experiencing sexual harassment. The EQUAL-PEER-SH group (33.5%) described boys with a high probability of both committing and experiencing sexual harassment, bullying, and electronic aggression. The smallest group of boys, labeled HIGH-ALL (9.2%), were at a high probability of committing and experiencing nearly all types of violence examined. We used weighted multiple-group analysis to compare risk factors across the latent groups identified. Attitudes supporting violence, internalized traditional masculinity, delinquency, school withdrawal, and both family and community violence exposure were significantly higher in groups with a high likelihood to commit various types of violence. These findings provide practical guidance for enhancing universal and selected violence prevention efforts for adolescent boys.

Polyvictimization Among Sexual and Gender Minority Youth

INTRODUCTION

Polyvictimization is a significant public health issue. Sexual and gender minority youth are important to include in polyvictimization research because they report higher rates of victimization than nonsexual and gender minority youth. This study examines whether polyvictimization attenuates the associations between individual types of victimization and depressed mood and substance use across gender and sexual identities.

METHODS

Data were collected cross-sectionally from 3,838 youth aged 14-15 years. Youth were recruited through social media between October 2018 and August 2019 across the U.S. Analyses were conducted in July 2022. Sexual and gender minority youth were oversampled. Depressed mood and substance use were dependent variables.

RESULTS

Transgender boys were the most likely to be polyvictims (25%). Transgender girls (14.2%) and cisgender sexual minority girls (13.4%) also reported high rates. Cisgender heterosexual boys were the least likely to be classified as polyvictims (4.7%). When adjusting for polyvictimization, existing relationships between individual types of victimization (e.g., theft) and depressed mood became nonsignificant in most cases. Of exception, witnessing violence and peer victimization remained significant predictors of the odds of depressed mood. Most associations between individual types of victimization and substance use became nonsignificant after considering polyvictimization, with the exception of cisgender heterosexual boys and girls, for whom many remained significant but attenuated (e.g., emotional interpersonal violence).

CONCLUSIONS

Sexual and gender minority youth experience a disproportionate number of victimizations across multiple domains. A comprehensive assessment of victimization exposure may be important when considering prevention and intervention approaches for depressed mood and substance use.

Risk factors for perpetrating sexual aggression among adolescents: Differences by gender and sexual orientation

Although anyone-regardless of gender or sexual orientation-can perpetrate sexual aggression, most studies examining risk factors for engaging in sexual aggression include samples of boys and men, and do not consider the sexual orientation of the respondent. The current study addresses this gap in the literature by examining how risk factors for sexual aggression vary as a function of gender and sexual orientation in a sample of 1782 high school youth. Participants completed surveys evaluating engagement in consent behaviors, rape myth acceptance, perception of peer rape myth acceptance, perceived peer engagement in violence, and perceived peer support for violence. A one-way MANOVA found that constructs varied as a function of gender and sexual orientation. Specifically, heterosexual boys reported lower engagement in consent behaviors, higher rape myth acceptance, and higher perceived peer support for violence compared to heterosexual girls and sexual minority girls. The results highlight the importance of considering gender and sexual orientation when designing sexual aggression prevention programs.

Event Characteristics of Sexual Violence Perpetration Against Romantic Partners Versus Non-Romantic Partners

Tactics used to perpetrate sexual violence may be crucial to understanding when and why sexual violence occurs. Moreover, most sexual violence occurs between people who know each other-including in the context of dating or sexual relationships. Little is known about the context of sexual violence that occurs with non-romantic partners. To address these research gaps, we examined online survey data from 786 young adults (weighted n = 763) aged 19 to 27 years, living across the United States. Findings suggest that 60% of sexual assault, 40% of attempted rape, 42% of rape, and 67% of coercive sex were perpetrated against a romantic partner, defined as a current or ex-boyfriend, girlfriend, spouse, or domestic partner. Contextual differences were noted by relationship type: Those who perpetrated against romantic partners were more likely than those who targeted non-romantic partners to report that it occurred because they were feeling sad or angry. They were also more likely to say that the other person was completely responsible for what happened. Conversely, those who aggressed against non-romantic partners were more likely to say that someone else found out about what happened. Making the other person feel guilty was the most common tactic for both groups. The most frequently endorsed reason for perpetrating sexual violence was "feeling really horny," although feeling "good" or being drunk/high were also common reasons noted by aggressors. Afterward, many said they felt guilty or ashamed and were worried about the other person's feelings. Fear of getting caught was universally absent. Findings support the importance of building emotion regulation and emotional awareness skills in sexual violence prevention programming. Prevention programs should also discuss coercion as a violence tactic, since perpetrators may not always recognize this to be sexual violence. More generally, violence prevention programs should also address healthy relationships, consent, and taking responsibility.

Overlap Between Exposure to Suicidal Behavior and Indirect Interpersonal Violence: Evidence for a More Integrated Approach to Violence Research

This study examines the overlap between indirect exposure to forms of interpersonal violence and suicidal behavior, and the impact of the co-occurrence of these exposures on indicators of depressed mood and substance use among adolescents. Participants were a national sample of 3,917 youth aged 14-15 years, recruited online between June 2018 and March 2020, including an oversample of sexual and gender minority youth. Eight in ten (81.3%) youth reported exposure to indirect interpersonal violence and/or suicidal behavior in their lifetimes: 39.5% reported only interpersonal violence exposure, 5.9% only suicidal behavior exposure, and 35.9% reported both. Youth who reported exposure to interpersonal violence were almost three times more likely (adjusted odds ratio [OR] = 2.78, p < .001) to also report suicidal behavior exposure. Compared with youth having no indirect violence exposure, those with only interpersonal violence exposure were 2.25 times more likely (p < .001), those with only exposure to suicidal behavior 2.93 times more likely (p < .001), and those with both were 5.63 times more likely to report recent depressed mood. The unadjusted odds of any substance use was significantly elevated for each type of indirect violence exposure, with the highest odds seen among youth with dual interpersonal violence and suicide exposure (OR = 4.87, p < .001). For both outcomes, significant findings remained but were attenuated after adjusting for demographic characteristics, non-victimization adversity exposure, and cumulative direct victimization. Findings suggest that the combination of exposure to interpersonal violence and suicidal behavior appears to be particularly impactful. Results highlight that assessment of trauma exposure among adolescents needs to be more comprehensive and include not only direct and indirect interpersonal violence, but also knowledge of other people's suicidal thoughts and behaviors.

Implementation of a Risk Reduction Protocol in Youth Violence Research

This article presents data from the Growing up with Media study related to the implementation of a risk reduction protocol that resulted in three groups of youth: low-risk youth (no flags), youth flagged because of violence involvement and not clinically referred; and flagged youth who were referred to a team clinician due to additional risk considerations. Data is from 3,979 U.S. youth 14-15 years of age recruited through social media between October 2018-August 2019. Four in ten youth were flagged for review. Findings suggest that this methodology of identifying and reviewing cases appears to be working as intended: Not only did referred youth have more flags than non-referred youth, but post-hoc analyses suggested that these youth also had higher rates of psychosocial problems (e.g., non-victimization adversity, substance use and depressed mood). The implementation of a risk reduction protocol such as the one described in this article adds a layer of human subject protection beyond the more standard list of websites and hotlines provided to all participants in most studies. This protocol leads the way for future studies to recreate a similar process to address concerning responses collected from survey research.

Gender Equitable Attitudes, Rape Myth Acceptance, and Perceived Peer Approval of Violence as Correlates of High School Boys' Intention to Garner Sexual Consent

The current study examines correlates of high school boys' intentions to garner consent in a future sexual encounter (N = 816). Bivariate correlation analyses demonstrated that increased intention to garner sexual consent was negatively correlated with rape myth acceptance and perceived peer acceptance of violence, and positively correlated with gender equitable attitudes. In multivariate linear regression analyses, perceived peer acceptance of violence and gender equitable attitudes remained significant in relation to intentions to garner sexual consent. Specifically, boys who reported a greater likelihood of perceiving their peers as accepting of violence and a lower likelihood of holding gender equitable attitudes also reported a lower likelihood to garner sexual consent. These findings highlight the importance of developing sexual assault prevention programs for high school boys that address the complex relationships between perceived peer norms, harmful gender role expectancies, and risk for sexual aggression. Results from this study also add to the existing literature on sexual consent communication in adolescents.

Sexual Violence and Substance Use among First-Year University Women: Differences by Sexual Minority Status

Sexual violence and substance use are important public health problems among university students. The present study examined rates of sexual violence victimization, perpetration, and substance use among first-year university women. Participants (n = 974) attending 14 universities across the United States completed an online confidential survey at the beginning and again later in their first year. The sample included women who identified as heterosexual, bisexual, lesbian, and asexual or questioning. The mean age was 19.1 years and 71.4% were White. Rates of victimization involving sexual harassment and sexual acts without consent were higher among sexual minority women relative to heterosexual women, with bisexual women being most likely to report these outcomes. Compared to heterosexual women, sexual minority women reported more frequent cigarette smoking, marijuana use and intoxication, use of club drugs, and overall illicit drug use. Across sexual violence and substance use outcomes, bisexual women reported the highest rates. Sexual minority women reported more accurate beliefs about sexual violence and consent relative to heterosexual women. Over the course of the first year, bisexual women and those who used illicit substances were more likely to report new incidents of sexual violence victimization. Implications for prevention of sexual violence among women, including sexual minorities, are discussed.

Youth Characteristics Associated With Sexual Violence Perpetration Among Transgender Boys and Girls, Cisgender Boys and Girls, and Nonbinary Youth

Importance

Gender minority adults experience higher rates of sexual violence (SV) than cisgender adults. How this disparity extends to youths, including perpetration rates, is unknown.

Objective

To compare rates of experience and perpetration of SV by gender identity and investigate characteristics associated with odds of perpetration within gender identity categories.

Design, Setting, and Participants

This cross-sectional study used baseline data from a national online longitudinal survey collected in 2018 to 2020. Eligible participants were youths ages 14 to 16 years who read English and had internet access. Data were analyzed in November 2021 and March 2022.

Exposures

Youth characteristics included stressors associated with being marginalized (eg, internalized transphobia), general stressors (eg, trauma not associated with experiencing SV), other marginalized statuses (eg, identifying as a girl), factors associated with protection (eg, social support), environmental characteristics (eg, community violence exposure), and risk factors associated with SV (eg, consumption of violent pornography).

Main Outcomes and Measures

Self-reported rates of experiencing and perpetrating SV, defined as sexual assault, rape, attempted rape, and coercive sex, among cisgender, transgender, and nonbinary youths.

Results

Among 4193 youths in the sample (mean [SD] age, 14.8 [0.7] years), 3282 participants (78.3%) were cisgender, 329 participants (7.9%) were transgender, and 582 participants (13.9%) were nonbinary. The odds of SV perpetration were not statistically significantly different for transgender boys and girls (odds ratio [OR], 0.90; 95% CI, 0.57-1.41; P = .64) or nonbinary youths (OR, 0.78; 95% CI, 0.54-1.12; P = .18) compared with cisgender boys and girls. By contrast, transgender boys and girls (OR, 2.31; 95% CI, 1.83-2.91; P < .001) and nonbinary youths (OR, 2.37; 95% CI, 1.98-2.83; P < .001) were more than 2-fold as likely as cisgender boys and girls to report experiencing SV. Aggressive behavior was associated with higher odds of SV perpetration for transgender boys and girls (adjusted OR [aOR], 1.87; 95% CI, 0.75-4.65; P = .18) and nonbinary youths (aOR, 1.61; 95% CI, 0.78-3.32; P = .20). Indications of hostile masculinity were associated with higher odds of SV perpetration among cisgender youths (ie, positive attitudes for boys to engage in rape behaviors: aOR per unit increase in score, 1.15; 95% CI, 1.07-1.25; P < .001; sexual dominance: aOR per unit increase in score, 1.03; 95% CI, 1.01-1.04; P < .001) but not among transgender or nonbinary youths.

Conclusion and Relevance

These findings may suggest an important foundation for the development of inclusive, research-based SV prevention programs and methods for incorporating gender identity effectively into SV research.

Exposure to Suicidal Behavior and Social Support Among Sexual- and Gender-Minority Youth

OBJECTIVES

In this study, we examine reports of exposure to suicidal behavior by youth sexual and gender identity. We explore how exposure is related to depressed mood in the context of high social support while accounting for cumulative adversity.

METHODS

Data from a large national sample of youth aged 14 to 15 years in the United States (N = 3979) were collected online in 2018-2019.

RESULTS

Sexual- and gender-minority youth were more likely to know someone close to them who attempted suicide, relative to cisgender heterosexual youth. Cisgender heterosexual youth were buffered from recent depressed mood when they endorsed having high social support in the context of exposure to suicidal behavior; less social support did not provide such a buffer. For cisgender sexual-minority male and female youth, exposure to suicidal behavior was related to recent depressed mood regardless of the level of social support. For gender-minority youth assigned female at birth, the combination of exposure and high social support was significantly associated with elevated depressed mood. Cumulative adversity accounted for some but not all of these relationships, indicating the influential role of exposure to suicidal behavior on depressed mood for some youth.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings illustrate the complexities of social support and raise questions about its potential to magnify stress rather than serve as a buffer for some youth. Although findings need to be replicated, suicide prevention efforts should carefully consider how to promote resilience among these suicide-exposed sexual- and gender-minority youth who may themselves be at risk for suicidal ideation and behavior.