Internalised White Ideal, Skin Tone Surveillance, and Hair Surveillance Predict Skin and Hair Dissatisfaction and Skin Bleaching among African American and Indian Women

The Sociostructural-Intersectional Body Image (SIBI) framework: Understanding the impact of white supremacy in body image research and practice

White supremacy and racial inequities have long pervaded psychological research, including body image scholarship and practice. The experiences of white, heterosexual, able-bodied, cisgender (predominantly college) women from wealthy, Westernized nations have been centered throughout body image research and practice, thereby perpetuating myths of invulnerability among racialized groups and casting white ideals and experiences as the standard by which marginalized bodies are compared. Body image is shaped by multiple axes of oppression that exist within systemic and structural systems, ultimately privileging certain bodies above others. In this position paper, we highlight how white supremacy has shaped body image research and practice. In doing so, we first review the history of body image research and explain how participant sampling, measurement, interpretive frameworks, and dissemination of research have upheld and reinforced white supremacy. Next, grounded in inclusivity and intersectionality, we advance the Sociostructural-Intersectional Body Image (SIBI) framework to more fully understand the body image experiences of those with racialized and minoritized bodies, while challenging and seeking to upend white supremacy in body image research and practice. We encourage other scholars to utilize the SIBI framework to better understand body inequities and the body image experiences of all people, in all bodies.

Investigating the role of perceived ingroup and outgroup colourism on body image and wellbeing among Black, Asian, and other racialised/ethnic minority groups living in the UK

Colourism is a form of prejudice and discrimination based on skin shade, disadvantaging people of colour with darker skin. This study investigates the relationship between perceived colourism, body image, and psychological wellbeing, considering perceived colourism from the ingroup (people of the same racialised group) and the outgroup (white people). A total of 516 Black, Asian, and other racialised/ethnic minority adults living in the UK (56.8 % women) completed an online survey. Using structural equation modelling, we tested a theoretically informed model: ingroup and outgroup colourism were predictors, body image and psychological distress were outcomes, and skin shade satisfaction and surveillance were hypothesised mediators. The model provided a good fit to the data. Ingroup colourism was related to lower skin shade satisfaction and higher skin shade surveillance, which in turn related to worse body image and greater psychological distress. Outgroup colourism was related to higher skin shade surveillance, which in turn was associated with worse body image. Outgroup colourism was directly associated with greater psychological distress. Results showed perceived colourism was associated with worse body image and psychological distress among people of colour in the UK. Therefore, colourism should be considered in the development of societal-, community-, and individual-level body image interventions.

Resistance and empowerment against racism: A preregistered study of associations with body appreciation and body acceptance by others in racialised minority adults in the United Kingdom

Research on body image and racism has largely focused on how individual experiences of racism are associated with detrimental body image outcomes. However, research has not yet examined how resistance and empowerment against racism (REAR) - a repertoire of proactive strategies aimed at preventing or challenging racism both at the individual and collective levels - shape positive body image outcomes. Here, 236 women and 233 men who identified as belonging to racialised minority groups in the United Kingdom completed the REAR Scale - which measures REAR along four dimensions - as well as measures of body appreciation and body acceptance by others. Correlational analyses indicated significant inter-correlations between nearly all REAR domains and body image-related variables in men, whereas relationships in women were largely non-significant. Linear model analyses indicated that greater leadership for resistance against racism was significantly associated with higher body appreciation in women and men. Greater interpersonal confrontation of racism was significantly associated with both body appreciation and body acceptance by others in men, but not in women. These results suggest that REAR may play a role in shaping body image-related outcomes in people of colour, but that these effects are also be shaped by the intersection of gender and race.

"You Can't Be Too Skinny. You Can't Be Too Fat. I Don't Know What You Are Supposed To Be.": A qualitative focus group study exploring body image experiences of South Asian women in the UK

British South Asian women may experience unique appearance pressures associated with their intersecting (racialised and gendered) identities; yet qualitative investigations of intersectional understandings of their body image are scarce. The aim of this study was to explore sociocultural factors influencing British South Asian women's body image using an intersectional framework. Seven focus groups were conducted with 22 women of South Asian heritage living in the UK between the age of 18 and 48 years old who were comfortable speaking in English. Data were analysed using reflexive thematic analysis. We generated four themes (1) navigating (often marriage-related) appearance pressures from South Asian elders and aunties (2) negotiating cultural and societal standards across different aspects of one's identity (3) representation of South Asian women in the wider context and (4) forms of healing from the pressures imposed on South Asian women. The findings have important implications for the body image experiences of South Asian women by acknowledging the need for tailored and nuanced responses to their complex needs in the sociocultural, political and relational context such as family, peers, education, health, media and the wider consumer landscape.

Into and Through the School-to-Prison Pipeline: The Impact of Colorism on the Criminalization of Black Girls

Colorism is a social construct privileging lighter-skinned people of color with proximity to European features over their darker-skinned counterparts. Despite the significant role in the lives of Black women and girls, colorism is an overlooked and understudied phenomenon, particularly regarding how it shapes their punishment and criminalization in schools. We conceptualize colorism as a social determinant of Black girls’ psychological well-being and outcomes. Darker-skinned Black girls face disproportionately severe school discipline, negative evaluation by teachers and peers, and are inundated with stereotypical messages that influence their sense of self—which increase vulnerability to trauma and psychological distress. Once inside the legal system, colorism plays a role in moving dark-skinned Black girls further into and through the pipeline at every stage of legal processing. The goal of the paper is to (1) highlight the role of colorism in the criminalization of Black girls, (2) identify school, forensic, and counseling/clinical psychology’s role in reducing the impact of colorism on Black girls’ lived experience as it relates to mental health and criminalization, and (3) identify psychological research and policy needs to mitigate the impact of colorism on Black girls’ life outcomes.

Sexual racism and colourism among Australian men who have sex with men: A qualitative investigation

Sexual racism, referring to discrimination in the context of sexual and romantic partner-seeking, is pernicious among men who have sex with men (MSM). Two gaps exist in the literature on sexual racism among MSM: the potential role of colourism, wherein non-White MSM experience additional discrimination due to their skin tone; and the lack of current qualitative data about how Australian MSM construe sexual racism and colourism. We qualitatively investigated the manifestations and construals of sexual racism and colourism within an Australian sample of MSM (N = 39, 64% non-White) recruited via Grindr. Reflexive thematic analysis identified three themes: Manifestations of sexual racism; Recognising the racial hierarchy of desirability; and Diverse understandings of sexual racism. Participants recognised a racial hierarchy of desirability that privileges Whiteness and gives rise to multiple manifestations of sexual racism that harm non-White MSM. Notably, this hierarchy is intertwined with a skin colour hierarchy that favours lighter complexions among non-White men. Construals of sexual racism and colourism were diverse and ranged from beliefs that race-based sexual preferences are sacrosanct and beyond the purview of moral critique, through to beliefs that race-based sexual preferences are inherently political and entail a moral obligation for individuals to introspect and modify.

South Asian women in the United Kingdom: The role of skin colour dissatisfaction in acculturation experiences and body dissatisfaction

South Asian women living in Western cultures may experience skin colour dissatisfaction, as fair skin is an important South Asian appearance ideal, whilst visible ethnic differences in their skin colour may lead to appearance-related ethnic teasing from members from the mainstream culture. This study investigates whether appearance-related ethnic teasing is indirectly associated with body dissatisfaction via skin colour dissatisfaction and explores the relationship between appearance-related ethnic teasing, cultural identification and skin colour dissatisfaction amongst first-generation South Asian women living in the United Kingdom. South Asian women (N = 98; 18-55 years, M = 24.60) completed an online questionnaire that measured appearance-related ethnic teasing, skin colour dissatisfaction, cultural identification, and body dissatisfaction. Appearance-related ethnic teasing was indirectly linked with greater body dissatisfaction via greater skin colour dissatisfaction. Appearance-related ethnic teasing was linked with stronger British identification, a greater sense of having an integrated identity and greater skin colour dissatisfaction. South Asian identification was associated with greater skin colour dissatisfaction. These findings suggest that skin colour dissatisfaction is an important link between appearance-related ethnic teasing and acculturating South Asian women's body image.

Prospective relationships between skin color satisfaction, body satisfaction, and binge eating in Black girls

Although it has been demonstrated that (a) body dissatisfaction and internalization of societal appearance standards contribute to disordered eating and (b) that internalization of societal appearance standards leads to decreased skin color satisfaction among Black women, it has not been established whether skin color dissatisfaction contributes to disordered eating among Black women or girls. The objective of the present study is to determine the influence of skin color satisfaction as a potential predictor for binge eating, and its effect through body image in Black girls during the vulnerable developmental period of adolescence. Using data from ten annual measurements in 1213 Black girls across ages 10-19, we sought to determine whether skin color satisfaction predicts Binge Eating Disorder (BED) risk and symptoms using pre-registered logistic and multilevel models. We found that lower skin color satisfaction at ages 13 and 14 significantly predicted greater odds of BED and lower skin color satisfaction at all ages predicted greater BED symptoms. Body satisfaction mediated the relationship between skin color satisfaction and BED symptoms. Our results suggest that skin color dissatisfaction is a novel component of body image for Black girls that is also related to binge eating.

Demographic and sociocultural predictors of face image satisfaction: The U.S. Body Project I

Despite substantial literature surrounding how people process and perceive faces, there is very little research investigating how people evaluate their own faces. We examined how gender, body mass, race, age, and sexual orientation were linked to people's satisfaction with the appearance of their eyes, nose, facial shape, and face overall among 11,620 adults recruited via Mechanical Turk. Most people mostly or definitely agreed they were happy with their facial appearance. There were notable racial differences, with Asian participants tending to report greater dissatisfaction. For example, only 66% of Asian women and 60% of Asian men mostly or definitely agreed that they were happy with the appearance of their eyes, which was lower than other racial groups. BMI and age were not strongly associated with face satisfaction. Sexual minority men were less satisfied than heterosexual men. About one in four gay and bisexual men, compared to only one in seven heterosexual men, reported dissatisfaction with their overall facial appearance. Men and women with poorer face image engaged in more appearance surveillance, more strongly internalized the thin-ideal, and perceived stronger sociocultural pressures from peers, parents, and media. The current study highlights important sociocultural and demographic factors tied to poorer face image.

Demographic predictors of body image satisfaction: The U.S. Body Project I

We examined how gender, body mass, race, age, and sexual orientation were linked to appearance evaluation, overweight preoccupation, and body image-related quality of life among 11,620 adults recruited via Mechanical Turk. Men were less likely than women to report low appearance evaluation, high overweight preoccupation, negative effects of body image on their quality of life, being on a weight-loss diet, and trying to lose weight with crash diets/fasting. Racial differences were generally small, but greater appearance evaluation was reported by Black men versus other groups and Black women versus White women. Across all measures, gay and bisexual men reported poorer body image than heterosexual men, with only small effect sizes observed for sexual orientation differences among women. Body mass, but not age, was strongly associated with body image. The prevalence of poor body image highlights the need for interventions. On the positive side, half of men and women reported high appearance evaluation. Examination of this group could identify factors promoting positive body image.

Decolonizing Purity Culture: Gendered Racism and White Idealization in Evangelical Christianity

Purity culture is a phenomenon promulgated by evangelical Christianity that teaches strict adherence to sexual abstinence prior to heterosexual marriage. Extant research illuminated the ways these teachings have harmed women by normalizing the oppression of their bodies, restricting sexual agency, teaching a shame response to pleasure, and perpetuating rape culture. Notably, these studies have centered white women’s experiences, and to date, there is a dearth of literature examining how these teachings uniquely impact Women of Color. There remains a paucity of research about the ways in which purity culture has perpetuated colonial and Eurocentric values that have systematically oppressed Women of Color. Framed by critical race feminism and intersectionality, we examined the lived experiences of nine Women of Color impacted by evangelical purity culture, revealing the nuanced ways in which gendered racism and white idealization influenced participants’ alliance to and embodiment of their intersecting racialized and gendered identities. With the insights gleaned from this study, we encourage readers to (a) raise their consciousness about the insidious mechanisms through which purity culture and the religious right operate and (b) actively dismantle forms of internalized oppression through radical acts of healing, and systematically through disrupting the perpetuation of purity culture rhetoric.

Demographic predictors of objectification theory and tripartite influence model constructs: The U.S. Body Project I

We examined how demographic factors (gender, sexual orientation, racial group, age, body mass) were linked to measures of sociocultural appearance concerns derived from objectification theory and the tripartite influence model (McKinley & Hyde, 1996; Schaefer et al., 2015) among 11,620 adults. Men were less likely than women to report high body surveillance, thin-ideal internalization, appearance-related media pressures, and family pressures; did not differ in peer pressures; and reported greater muscle/athletic internalization. Both men and women expressed greater desire for their bodies to look "very lean" than to look "very thin". Compared to gay men, heterosexual men reported lower body surveillance, thin-ideal internalization, peer pressures, and media pressures. Black women reported lower thin-ideal internalization than White, Hispanic, and Asian women, whereas Asian women reported greater family pressures. Being younger and having higher BMIs were associated with greater sociocultural appearance concerns across most measures. The variation in prevalence of sociocultural appearance concerns across these demographic groups highlights the need for interventions.

Body image and internalization of appearance ideals in Black women: An update and call for culturally-sensitive research

Extant research on body image supports sociocultural theories emphasizing the internalization of societal pressures to attain the thin-ideal, as well as other White or Eurocentric ideals that are predominant in mainstream media. While earlier research suggests that Black women are less likely to report body dissatisfaction and thin-ideal internalization compared to women of other racial backgrounds, recent studies argue that most measures of body image and appearance ideals may not be accurate assessments of body dissatisfaction for this population. In this paper, we summarize the literature over the past two decades on body image and appearance ideals among cisgender Black girls and women and discuss the applications of well-established sociocultural theories of body dissatisfaction. We additionally highlight existing gaps in culturally-sensitive theory and assessment tools and consider the benefits of applying intersectionality-informed research. We lastly propose future directions in research, assessment, and intervention to develop more culturally-sensitive approaches to identifying, assessing, and addressing body dissatisfaction among Black girls and women. This paper encourages researchers to apply culturally-sensitive and intersectionality-informed theory to improve efforts in assessing early warning signs of body dissatisfaction and developing effective interventions for this population.

Skin Color and Skin Tone Diversity in Human Sexuality Textbook Anatomical Diagrams

Little is known about skin tone and skin color representation within sexuality education materials. A content analysis was performed to assess skin tone and skin color diversity among anatomical images (n = 182) within eight contemporary, college-level human sexuality textbooks. Of these images, 1.1% represented dark skin tones while 83.5% represented light skin tones. Skin colors commonly associated with Black and Brown people were underrepresented in comparison to colors generally associated with white or white-presenting people such as conch, which comprised 42.3% (n = 77) of anatomical images. We encourage sex therapists to use racially conscious and inclusive imagery and educational materials when serving clients.

Skin Lightening Causes and Complications

Skin bleaching, also known as skin lightening, is the deliberate lightening of an individual's skin tone outside of medical supervision. The causes are complex, multifactorial and often intertwined although the unifying themes centre around a belief that lighter skin denotes an individual of higher status, be that economic or physical beauty, than their darker skinned counterpart. Skin lightening is achieved using agents that block the production of melanin and often contain drugs such as Hydroquinone, super potent topical steroid and Mercury. These drugs can cause serious local and systemic complication. Skin lightening compounds are illegal in most countries throughout the world however the industry is worth billions of dollars annually and the agents can be easily obtained by individuals seeking to lightening their skin. Dermatologists are in a unique position to identify those at risk of using skin bleaching agents, manage complications and give advice on how to avoid using skin lightening agents to treat dermatological conditions and physiological variation in pigmentation. In order to manage the belief that lighter skin is better, societal level change is required in order to ensure that people of all skin tones are represented in the media.

The color of normal: How a Eurocentric focus erases pigmentation complexity

OBJECTIVES

Skin pigmentation is both a highly variable and highly visible human phenotypic trait. Investigations into the biology and origins of this variation have been the focus of research in the fields of dermatology, anthropology, and forensic science, among others. This manuscript explores how much of what we know about the biology, genetics, and evolutionary origins of pigmentation has been strongly influenced by investigations and applications that focus on lighter skin.

METHODS

I reviewed literature from the fields of dermatology, anthropology and evolutionary genetics, and forensic science to assess how perceptions of lighter skin as the "normal" state in humans can shape the ways that knowledge is gathered and applied in these fields.

RESULTS

This normalization of lighter skin has impacted common tools used in dermatology and shaped the framework of dermatological education. A strong Eurocentric bias has shaped our understanding of the genetic architecture of pigmentary traits, which influences the ways in we understand the evolutionary processes leading to modern pigmentation diversity. Finally, I discuss how these biases in pigmentation genetics work in combination with phenotypic systems that privilege predicting lighter pigmentation variation to impede accurate prediction of intermediate phenotypes, particularly in individuals with ancestry from multiple populations. This can lead to a disproportionate targeting of already over-policed populations with darker skin.

CONCLUSIONS

Potential changes to how we conceptualize clinical and basic pigmentation research may help to reduce existing health disparities and improve understanding of pigmentation genetic architecture and how this knowledge is applied in forensic contexts.

The Happy American Body 2.0: Predictors of affective body satisfaction in two U.S. national internet panel surveys

The first national study of body image was reported four decades ago in the article The Happy American Body (Berscheid et al., 1973). To provide a modern follow-up to this study, we used two Internet panel surveys of U.S. adults to examine feelings about appearance (Survey 1: Married N = 1095; Single N = 5481) and weight, appearance, body, and muscle size/tone (Survey 2: N = 1601). Mean ages across samples for men and women ranged from 42-53. On the positive side, many men and women were somewhat-to-very satisfied with their appearance (67 %; 57 %), overall body (61 %; 46 %), weight (54 %; 42 %), and muscle tone/size (56 %; 41 %). Mean gender differences were small (Cohen's ds = 0.18-0.32), as were sexual orientation differences within each gender (ds = |0.00-0.25|). Looking at negative body image, fewer men than women were somewhat-to-very unhappy with their appearance among married (19 %; 29 %) and single participants (29 %; 35 %), and fewer men were somewhat-to-extremely dissatisfied with their appearance (18 %; 24 %), body (27 %; 39 %), weight (36 %; 49 %), muscle tone/size (27 %; 41 %). Nearly one-fifth of men (18 %) and one-fourth of women (27 %) were very-to-extremely dissatisfied with at least one of these traits, highlighting the importance of body image interventions.

Skin tone surveillance, depression, and life satisfaction in Indian women: Colour-blind racial ideology as a moderator

Consistent with objectification theory, many studies have shown that self-objectification (and body surveillance) is associated with depression and dissatisfaction with life. Critically, however, much of this research has been conducted with White women attending university in North America. To extend this literature, we investigated whether greater skin tone surveillance - a group-specific manifestation of self-objectification among women of colour - is linked to higher depression and lower life satisfaction among Indian women. Given that some system justifying ideologies provide a protective well-being effect for lower status individuals, we considered whether colour-blind racial ideology (i.e., the minimization/denial of White privilege) weakened the relations between skin tone surveillance and poorer well-being outcomes. Data were collected via Amazon Mechanical Turk; participants included Indian women (N = 177) between the ages of 19-30 living in India. Participants completed measures of skin tone surveillance, colour-blind racial ideology, depression, and life satisfaction. Results revealed that skin tone surveillance was associated with higher depression (and more strongly among women higher in colour-blind racial ideology). Moreover, skin tone surveillance was associated with lower life satisfaction only among women lower in colour-blind racial ideology. Implications are discussed.