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Gonzálvez M, Muñoz-Hernández C. R programming environment in wildlife: Are Veterinary Sciences at the same level than other research areas? Res Vet Sci 2024; 166:105079. [PMID: 37963421 DOI: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2023.105079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2023] [Revised: 10/29/2023] [Accepted: 11/05/2023] [Indexed: 11/16/2023]
Abstract
The computing environment has revolutionized the management and analysis of data in sciences during the last decades. This study aimed to evaluate the use of R software in research articles addressing the study of wildlife worldwide, particularly focusing on the research area "Veterinary Sciences". For this purpose, a systematic review mainly performed in the Web of Science database was conducted. Out of a total of 509 articles reviewed, our results show an increasing trend of the number of publications using the R software over time, as well as a wide geographical distribution at a global scale, particularly in North America, Europe, Australia and China. Most publications were categorized in research areas related to "Biological Sciences", while a minority of them was included in "Veterinary Sciences" (5.9%; 30/509). About the species groups assessed, many articles evaluated a single species group (96.5%), being mammals (50.7%) and birds (14.8%) the most studied ones. The present study showed a high variety of R-packages used in the publications reviewed, all of them related to data analysis, the study of genetic/phylogenetic information and graphical representation. Interestingly, the common use of packages between different research areas is indicative of the high interest of using R software in scientific articles. Our study points the R software as an open-source programming language that allows to support research addressing the study of wildlife, becoming a key software for many research areas, including "Veterinary Sciences". However, an in-depth methodological description about the use of R software in publications to improve the tracking, reproducibility and transparency is encouraged.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moisés Gonzálvez
- Departamento de Sanidad Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Campus de Excelencia Internacional Regional "Campus Mare Nostrum", Universidad de Murcia, 30100 Murcia, Spain; Departamento de Sanidad Animal, Grupo de Investigación en Sanidad Animal y Zoonosis (GISAZ), Universidad de Córdoba, 14014 Córdoba, Spain.
| | - Clara Muñoz-Hernández
- Departamento de Sanidad Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Campus de Excelencia Internacional Regional "Campus Mare Nostrum", Universidad de Murcia, 30100 Murcia, Spain; Grupo SaBio, Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos, IREC (CSIC, UCLM, JCCM), 13005 Ciudad Real, Spain
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2
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Gonzálvez M, Paniagua J, Jiménez-Martín D, Cano-Terriza D, Castro-Scholten S, Barbero-Moyano J, Jiménez-Ruiz S, García-Bocanegra I. Monitoring the dynamics of consumption of ungulate game by-products in vulture feeding stations in Iberian Mediterranean ecosystems. Res Vet Sci 2023; 164:105026. [PMID: 37776609 DOI: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2023.105026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2023] [Revised: 09/18/2023] [Accepted: 09/19/2023] [Indexed: 10/02/2023]
Abstract
Vulture feeding stations (VFS) are strategic sites for the management of ungulate game by-products, with major implications for the conservation of obligate avian scavengers. These feeding points are designed to prevent access by facultative mammalian scavengers and to reduce the risk of trophically transmitted pathogen infection through scavenging behaviour. The aim of this study, using camera trap video recordings, was to evaluate the feeding dynamics around 32 lots of ungulate game by-products deposited in VFS in southern Spain. During the study period (2017-2022), 11 different avian and mammal scavenger species was detected. Also, many feeding events involving all scavenger species (51.1%; 362/709) and mammal scavenger species (23.4%; 166/709) was recorded. A significantly earlier presence of major obligate scavengers (Gyps fulvus and Aegypius monachus) (P = 0.023) and a lower persistence of by-products deposited (P < 0.001) were detected during October-December compared to January-March. Our results confirm that VFS play an important role in vulture conservation in Iberian Mediterranean ecosystems. However, we also point out the potential risk of VFS as hotspots of foodborne pathogens for mammal scavengers, particularly when the hunting offal persists longer. Consequently, we urge the competent authorities to update the regulations affecting VFS management, and hunting estate managers to make every effort to correctly apply those preventing scavenging mammals from gaining access to VFS. Further studies tackling access of non-target species to VFS are also warranted to properly assess the sanitary implications and geographical extent of these problems for mammal species inhabiting areas where VFS are installed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moisés Gonzálvez
- Departamento de Sanidad Animal, Grupo de Investigación en Sanidad Animal y Zoonosis (GISAZ), UIC Zoonosis y Enfermedades Emergentes ENZOEM, Universidad de Córdoba, 14014 Córdoba, Spain; Departamento de Sanidad Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Campus de Excelencia Internacional Regional "Campus Mare Nostrum", Universidad de Murcia, 30100 Murcia, Spain
| | - Jorge Paniagua
- Departamento de Sanidad Animal, Grupo de Investigación en Sanidad Animal y Zoonosis (GISAZ), UIC Zoonosis y Enfermedades Emergentes ENZOEM, Universidad de Córdoba, 14014 Córdoba, Spain
| | - Débora Jiménez-Martín
- Departamento de Sanidad Animal, Grupo de Investigación en Sanidad Animal y Zoonosis (GISAZ), UIC Zoonosis y Enfermedades Emergentes ENZOEM, Universidad de Córdoba, 14014 Córdoba, Spain
| | - David Cano-Terriza
- Departamento de Sanidad Animal, Grupo de Investigación en Sanidad Animal y Zoonosis (GISAZ), UIC Zoonosis y Enfermedades Emergentes ENZOEM, Universidad de Córdoba, 14014 Córdoba, Spain; CIBERINFEC, ISCIII CIBER de Enfermedades Infecciosas, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - Sabrina Castro-Scholten
- Departamento de Sanidad Animal, Grupo de Investigación en Sanidad Animal y Zoonosis (GISAZ), UIC Zoonosis y Enfermedades Emergentes ENZOEM, Universidad de Córdoba, 14014 Córdoba, Spain
| | - Jesús Barbero-Moyano
- Departamento de Sanidad Animal, Grupo de Investigación en Sanidad Animal y Zoonosis (GISAZ), UIC Zoonosis y Enfermedades Emergentes ENZOEM, Universidad de Córdoba, 14014 Córdoba, Spain
| | - Saúl Jiménez-Ruiz
- Departamento de Sanidad Animal, Grupo de Investigación en Sanidad Animal y Zoonosis (GISAZ), UIC Zoonosis y Enfermedades Emergentes ENZOEM, Universidad de Córdoba, 14014 Córdoba, Spain; Research Centre in Biodiversity and Genetic Resources & Associated Laboratory (CIBIO-InBIO), Program in Genomics, Biodiversity and Land Planning (BIOPOLIS), University of Porto, Vairão 4485-661, Portugal.
| | - Ignacio García-Bocanegra
- Departamento de Sanidad Animal, Grupo de Investigación en Sanidad Animal y Zoonosis (GISAZ), UIC Zoonosis y Enfermedades Emergentes ENZOEM, Universidad de Córdoba, 14014 Córdoba, Spain; CIBERINFEC, ISCIII CIBER de Enfermedades Infecciosas, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain
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Redondo‐Gómez D, Rossi L, Cardello M, De Pasquale S, Martínez‐Carrasco C, Sánchez‐Zapata JA, Moleón M. Top‐predator carrion is scary: Fight‐and‐flight responses of wild boars to wolf carcasses. Ecol Evol 2023; 13:e9911. [PMID: 37033396 PMCID: PMC10076969 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.9911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2022] [Revised: 02/21/2023] [Accepted: 02/23/2023] [Indexed: 04/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Predation risk largely constrains prey behavior. However, whether predators may be scary also after death remains unexplored. Here, we describe the “fight‐and‐flight” responses of a prey, the wild boar (Sus scrofa), to carcasses of (a) its main predator, the gray wolf (Canis lupus) and (b) a carnivore that very rarely kills wild boars, the red fox (Vulpes vulpes), in the western Alps (Italy). We recorded the behavior of wild boars at 10 wolf and 9 fox carcass sites. We found eight “fight‐and‐flight” responses toward wolf carcasses, and none toward fox carcasses. Our results suggest that carnivore carcasses may indeed be scary; fear responses toward them are dependent on the species to which the carcass belongs; and animals approaching the carcasses are feared mainly when the latter are relatively fresh. This emphasizes the multiple and complex roles that carrion plays in the landscape of fear and opens exciting ecological, epidemiological, and evolutionary research avenues.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Luca Rossi
- Department of Veterinary SciencesUniversity of TorinoTorinoItaly
| | - Mattia Cardello
- Department of Veterinary SciencesUniversity of TorinoTorinoItaly
| | | | | | | | - Marcos Moleón
- Department of ZoologyUniversity of GranadaGranadaSpain
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Martínez-Carrasco C, Moroni B, García-Garrigós A, Robetto S, Carella E, Zoppi S, Tizzani P, Gonzálvez M, Orusa R, Rossi L. Wolf Is Back: A Novel Sensitive Sentinel Rejoins the Trichinella Cycle in the Western Alps. Vet Sci 2023; 10:vetsci10030206. [PMID: 36977245 PMCID: PMC10055899 DOI: 10.3390/vetsci10030206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2023] [Revised: 03/01/2023] [Accepted: 03/03/2023] [Indexed: 03/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Trichinella is a foodborne parasite whose wildlife reservoirs are represented by carnivores and omnivores with predatory and scavenger behavior. The aim of the present study was to investigate the occurrence of Trichinella infection in grey wolves (Canis lupus) that recolonized the Western Alps from the end of the past century, and discuss the epidemiological role played by this apex predator in the early phases of its return. During the period 2017–2022, diaphragm samples were obtained from 130 individuals collected in the frame of a wolf mortality survey. Trichinella larvae were found in 15 wolves (11.53%) with a parasite intensity of 11.74 larvae per gram. Trichinella britovi was the only species identified. This is the first prevalence survey of Trichinella in wolves recolonizing the Alps. Results suggest that, in this particular biotope, the wolf has rejoined the Trichinella cycle and has the potential to play an increasingly important role as maintenance host. Arguments in favor and against this perspective are discussed and knowledge gaps highlighted. The calculated Trichinella larval biomass in the estimated wolf population roaming in Northwest Italy will serve as baseline value to explore possible shifts in the relative importance of wolves as Trichinella reservoir within the regional carnivore community. Finally, wolves re-colonizing the Alps already appear as sensitive sentinels to monitor the risk of Trichinella zoonotic transmission by infected wild boar meat.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos Martínez-Carrasco
- Departamento de Sanidad Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Campus de Excelencia Internacional Regional “Campus Mare Nostrum”, Universidad de Murcia, 30100 Murcia, Spain
| | - Barbara Moroni
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale di Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d’Aosta, Via Bologna 148, 10154 Torino, Italy
- Correspondence: (B.M.); (E.C.)
| | - Anna García-Garrigós
- Departamento de Sanidad Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Campus de Excelencia Internacional Regional “Campus Mare Nostrum”, Universidad de Murcia, 30100 Murcia, Spain
| | - Serena Robetto
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale di Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d’Aosta, Centro di Referenza Nazionale Malattie Animali Selvatici (CERMAS), Località Amerique 7G, 11020 Quart, Italy
| | - Emanuele Carella
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale di Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d’Aosta, Via Bologna 148, 10154 Torino, Italy
- Correspondence: (B.M.); (E.C.)
| | - Simona Zoppi
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale di Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d’Aosta, Via Bologna 148, 10154 Torino, Italy
| | - Paolo Tizzani
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Turin, Largo Paolo Braccini 2, 10095 Grugliasco, Italy
| | - Moisés Gonzálvez
- Departamento de Sanidad Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Campus de Excelencia Internacional Regional “Campus Mare Nostrum”, Universidad de Murcia, 30100 Murcia, Spain
- Departamento de Sanidad Animal, Grupo de Investigación en Sanidad Animal y Zoonosis (GISAZ), Universidad de Córdoba, 14014 Córdoba, Spain
| | - Riccardo Orusa
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale di Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d’Aosta, Centro di Referenza Nazionale Malattie Animali Selvatici (CERMAS), Località Amerique 7G, 11020 Quart, Italy
| | - Luca Rossi
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Turin, Largo Paolo Braccini 2, 10095 Grugliasco, Italy
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Bandyopadhyay M, Burton AC, Gupta SK, Krishnamurthy R. Understanding the distribution and fine-scale habitat selection of mesocarnivores along a habitat quality gradient in western Himalaya. PeerJ 2022; 10:e13993. [PMID: 36132214 PMCID: PMC9484455 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.13993] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2022] [Accepted: 08/11/2022] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: Human activities have resulted in a rapid increase of modified habitats in proximity to wildlife habitats in the Himalaya. However, it is crucial to understand the extent to which human habitat modification affects wildlife. Mesocarnivores generally possess broader niches than large carnivores and adapt quickly to human activities. Here, we use a case study in the western Himalaya to test the hypothesis that human disturbance influenced mesocarnivore habitat use. Methods: We used camera trapping and mitochondrial DNA-based species identification from faecal samples to obtain mesocarnivore detections. We then compared the responses of mesocarnivores between an anthropogenic site and a less disturbed park along a contiguous gradient in habitat quality. The non-linear pattern in species-specific habitat selection and factors responsible for space usage around villages was captured using hierarchical generalized additive modelling (HGAM) and non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) ordination. Results: Wildlife occurrences along the gradient varied by species. Leopard cat and red fox were the only terrestrial mesocarnivores that occurred in both anthropogenic site and park. We found a shift in habitat selection from less disturbed habitat in the park to disturbed habitat in anthropogenic site for the species detected in both the habitat types. For instance, red fox showed habitat selection towards high terrain ruggedness (0.5 to 0.7 TRI) and low NDVI (-0.05 to 0.2) in the park but no such specific selection in anthropogenic site. Further, leopard cat showed habitat selection towards moderate slope (20°) and medium NDVI (0.5) in park but no prominent habitat selections in anthropogenic site. The results revealed their constrained behaviour which was further supported by the intensive site usage close to houses, agricultural fields and human trails in villages. Conclusions: Our results indicate shifts in habitat selection and intensive site usage by mesocarnivores in the human-modified habitat. In future, this suggests the possibility of conflict and disease spread affecting both the people and wildlife. Therefore, this study highlights the requisite to test the wildlife responses to rapidly growing human expansions in modified habitats to understand the extent of impact. The management strategies need to have an integrated focus for further expansions of modified habitat and garbage disposal strategies, especially in the human-wildlife interface area.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - A. Cole Burton
- Faculty of Forestry, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | | | - Ramesh Krishnamurthy
- Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India,Faculty of Forestry, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
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Tombak KJ, Easterling LA, Martinez L, Seng MS, Wait LF, Rubenstein DI. Divergent water requirements partition exposure risk to parasites in wild equids. Ecol Evol 2022; 12:e8693. [PMID: 35342568 PMCID: PMC8928873 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.8693] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2021] [Revised: 01/22/2022] [Accepted: 01/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
For grazing herbivores, dung density in feeding areas is an important determinant of exposure risk to fecal‐orally transmitted parasites. When host species share the same parasite species, a nonrandom distribution of their cumulative dung density and/or nonrandom ranging and feeding behavior may skew exposure risk and the relative selection pressure parasites impose on each host. The arid‐adapted Grevy's zebra (Equus grevyi) can range more widely than the water‐dependent plains zebra (Equus quagga), with which it shares the same species of gastrointestinal nematodes. We studied how the spatial distribution of zebra dung relates to ranging and feeding behavior to assess parasite exposure risk in Grevy's and plains zebras at a site inhabited by both zebra species. We found that zebra dung density declined with distance from water, Grevy's zebra home ranges (excluding those of territorial males) were farther from water than those of plains zebras, and plains zebra grazing areas had higher dung density than random points while Grevy's zebra grazing areas did not, suggesting a greater exposure risk in plains zebras associated with their water dependence. Fecal egg counts increased with home range proximity to water for both species, but the response was stronger in plains zebras, indicating that this host species may be particularly vulnerable to the elevated exposure risk close to water. We further ran experiments on microclimatic effects on dung infectivity and showed that fewer nematode eggs embryonated in dung in the sun than in the shade. However, only 5% of the zebra dung on the landscape was in shade, indicating that the microclimatic effects of shade on the density of infective larvae is not a major influence on exposure risk dynamics. Ranging constraints based on water requirements appear to be key mediators of nematode parasite exposure in free‐ranging equids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaia J. Tombak
- Department of Anthropology Hunter College of the City University of New York New York New York USA
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology Princeton University Princeton New Jersey USA
| | - Laurel A. Easterling
- School of Veterinary Medicine University of Pennsylvania Philadelphia Pennsylvania USA
| | | | | | - Liana F. Wait
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology Princeton University Princeton New Jersey USA
| | - Daniel I. Rubenstein
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology Princeton University Princeton New Jersey USA
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Olson ZH, Torlone C, Russell CM, Wood CA, Welch JF, Burkholder KM. Foraging risk in scavenging ecology: a study of scavenger behavior and patterns of bacterial growth. Basic Appl Ecol 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.baae.2022.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
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Smart carnivores think twice: Red fox delays scavenging on conspecific carcasses to reduce parasite risk. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2021; 243:105462. [PMID: 34602687 PMCID: PMC8464160 DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2021.105462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2021] [Revised: 09/20/2021] [Accepted: 09/23/2021] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
The recent SARS-CoV-2 epidemic has highlighted the need to prevent emerging and re-emerging diseases, which means that we must approach the study of diseases from a One Health perspective. The study of pathogen transmission in wildlife is challenging, but it is unquestionably key to understand how epidemiological interactions occur at the wildlife-domestic-human interface. In this context, studying parasite avoidance behaviours may provide essential insights on parasite transmission, host-parasite coevolution, and energy flow through food-webs. However, the strategies of avoiding trophically transmitted parasites in mammalian carnivores have received little scientific attention. Here, we explore the behaviour of red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and other mammalian carnivores at conspecific and heterospecific carnivore carcasses using videos recorded by camera traps. We aim to determine 1) the factors influencing the probability of foxes to practice cannibalism, and 2) whether the scavenging behaviour of foxes differ when facing conspecific vs. heterospecific carcasses. We found that red foxes were generally reluctant to consume mesocarnivore carrion, especially of conspecifics. When recorded, consumption by foxes was delayed several days (heterospecific carcasses) or weeks (conspecific carcasses) after carcass detection. Other mammalian scavengers showed a similar pattern. Also, meat-borne parasite transmission from wild carnivore carcasses to domestic dogs and cats was highly unlikely. Our findings challenge the widespread assumption that cannibalistic or intra-specific scavenging is a major transmission route for Trichinella spp. and other meat-borne parasites, especially for the red fox. Overall, our results suggest that the feeding decisions of scavengers are probably shaped by two main contrasting forces, namely the nutritional reward provided by carrion of phylogenetically similar species and the risk of acquiring meat-borne parasites shared with these species. This study illustrates how the detailed monitoring of carnivore behaviour is essential to assess the epidemiological role of these hosts in the maintenance and dispersion of parasites of public and animal health relevance.
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Canuti M, Bouchard É, Rodrigues B, Whitney HG, Hopson M, Gilroy C, Stenson G, Dufour SC, Lang AS, Verhoeven JTP. Newlavirus, a Novel, Highly Prevalent, and Highly Diverse Protoparvovirus of Foxes ( Vulpes spp.). Viruses 2021; 13:1969. [PMID: 34696399 PMCID: PMC8537079 DOI: 10.3390/v13101969] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2021] [Revised: 09/28/2021] [Accepted: 09/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The genus Protoparvovirus (family Parvoviridae) includes several viruses of carnivores. We describe a novel fox protoparvovirus, which we named Newlavirus as it was discovered in samples from Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada. Analysis of the full non-structural protein (NS1) sequence indicates that this virus is a previously uncharacterized species. Newlavirus showed high prevalence in foxes from both the mainland (Labrador, 54/137, 39.4%) and the island of Newfoundland (22/50, 44%) but was not detected in samples from other carnivores, including coyotes (n = 92), lynx (n = 58), martens (n = 146), mink (n = 47), ermines (n = 17), dogs (n = 48), and ringed (n = 4), harp (n = 6), bearded (n = 6), and harbor (n = 2) seals. Newlavirus was found at similar rates in stool and spleen (24/80, 30% vs. 59/152, 38.8%, p = 0.2) but at lower rates in lymph nodes (2/37, 5.4%, p < 0.01). Sequencing a fragment of approximately 750 nt of the capsid protein gene from 53 samples showed a high frequency of co-infection by more than one strain (33.9%), high genetic diversity with 13 genotypes with low sequence identities (70.5-87.8%), and no geographic segregation of strains. Given the high prevalence, high diversity, and the lack of identification in other species, foxes are likely the natural reservoir of Newlavirus, and further studies should investigate its distribution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Canuti
- Department of Biology, Memorial, University of Newfoundland, 232 Elizabeth Ave., St. John’s, NL A1B 3X9, Canada; (H.G.W.); (S.C.D.); (J.T.P.V.)
| | - Émilie Bouchard
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, 52 Campus Drive, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5B4, Canada;
- Research Group on Epidemiology of Zoonoses and Public Health (GREZOSP), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Université de Montréal, 3200 rue Sicotte, Saint-Hyacinthe, QC J2S 2M2, Canada
| | - Bruce Rodrigues
- Wildlife Division, Newfoundland and Labrador Department of Fisheries, Forestry, and Agriculture, PO Box 2007, Corner Brook, NL A2H 7S1, Canada;
| | - Hugh G. Whitney
- Department of Biology, Memorial, University of Newfoundland, 232 Elizabeth Ave., St. John’s, NL A1B 3X9, Canada; (H.G.W.); (S.C.D.); (J.T.P.V.)
| | - Marti Hopson
- Atlantic Veterinary College, University of Prince Edward Island, 550 University Ave., Charlottetown, PE C1A 4P3, Canada;
| | - Cornelia Gilroy
- Department of Pathology and Microbiology, Atlantic Veterinary College, University of Prince Edward Island, 550 University Ave., Charlottetown, PE C1A 4P3, Canada;
| | - Garry Stenson
- Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Government of Canada, P.O. Box 5667, St. John’s, NL A1C 5X1, Canada;
| | - Suzanne C. Dufour
- Department of Biology, Memorial, University of Newfoundland, 232 Elizabeth Ave., St. John’s, NL A1B 3X9, Canada; (H.G.W.); (S.C.D.); (J.T.P.V.)
| | - Andrew S. Lang
- Department of Biology, Memorial, University of Newfoundland, 232 Elizabeth Ave., St. John’s, NL A1B 3X9, Canada; (H.G.W.); (S.C.D.); (J.T.P.V.)
| | - Joost T. P. Verhoeven
- Department of Biology, Memorial, University of Newfoundland, 232 Elizabeth Ave., St. John’s, NL A1B 3X9, Canada; (H.G.W.); (S.C.D.); (J.T.P.V.)
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