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Huening KA, Groves JT, Wildenthal JA, Tabita FR, North JA. Escherichia coli possessing the dihydroxyacetone phosphate shunt utilize 5'-deoxynucleosides for growth. Microbiol Spectr 2024; 12:e0308623. [PMID: 38441472 PMCID: PMC10986504 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.03086-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2023] [Accepted: 02/17/2024] [Indexed: 03/08/2024] Open
Abstract
All organisms utilize S-adenosyl-l-methionine (SAM) as a key co-substrate for the methylation of biological molecules, the synthesis of polyamines, and radical SAM reactions. When these processes occur, 5'-deoxy-nucleosides are formed as byproducts such as S-adenosyl-l-homocysteine, 5'-methylthioadenosine (MTA), and 5'-deoxyadenosine (5dAdo). A prevalent pathway found in bacteria for the metabolism of MTA and 5dAdo is the dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) shunt, which converts these compounds into dihydroxyacetone phosphate and 2-methylthioacetaldehyde or acetaldehyde, respectively. Previous work in other organisms has shown that the DHAP shunt can enable methionine synthesis from MTA or serve as an MTA and 5dAdo detoxification pathway. Rather, the DHAP shunt in Escherichia coli ATCC 25922, when introduced into E. coli K-12, enables the use of 5dAdo and MTA as a carbon source for growth. When MTA is the substrate, the sulfur component is not significantly recycled back to methionine but rather accumulates as 2-methylthioethanol, which is slowly oxidized non-enzymatically under aerobic conditions. The DHAP shunt in ATCC 25922 is active under oxic and anoxic conditions. Growth using 5-deoxy-d-ribose was observed during aerobic respiration and anaerobic respiration with Trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO), but not during fermentation or respiration with nitrate. This suggests the DHAP shunt may only be relevant for extraintestinal pathogenic E. coli lineages with the DHAP shunt that inhabit oxic or TMAO-rich extraintestinal environments. This reveals a heretofore overlooked role of the DHAP shunt in carbon and energy metabolism from ubiquitous SAM utilization byproducts and suggests a similar role may occur in other pathogenic and non-pathogenic bacteria with the DHAP shunt. IMPORTANCE The acquisition and utilization of organic compounds that serve as growth substrates are essential for Escherichia coli to grow and multiply. Ubiquitous enzymatic reactions involving S-adenosyl-l-methionine as a co-substrate by all organisms result in the formation of the 5'-deoxy-nucleoside byproducts, 5'-methylthioadenosine and 5'-deoxyadenosine. All E. coli possess a conserved nucleosidase that cleaves these 5'-deoxy-nucleosides into 5-deoxy-pentose sugars for adenine salvage. The DHAP shunt pathway is found in some extraintestinal pathogenic E. coli, but its function in E. coli possessing it has remained unknown. This study reveals that the DHAP shunt enables the utilization of 5'-deoxy-nucleosides and 5-deoxy-pentose sugars as growth substrates in E. coli strains with the pathway during aerobic respiration and anaerobic respiration with TMAO, but not fermentative growth. This provides an insight into the diversity of sugar compounds accessible by E. coli with the DHAP shunt and suggests that the DHAP shunt is primarily relevant in oxic or TMAO-rich extraintestinal environments.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Joshua T. Groves
- Department of Microbiology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA
| | - John A. Wildenthal
- Department of Microbiology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA
| | - F. Robert Tabita
- Department of Microbiology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA
| | - Justin A. North
- Department of Microbiology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA
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Huening KA, Groves JT, Wildenthal JA, Tabita FR, North JA. Utilization of 5'-deoxy-nucleosides as Growth Substrates by Extraintestinal Pathogenic E. coli via the Dihydroxyacetone Phosphate Shunt. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.08.10.552779. [PMID: 37609188 PMCID: PMC10441430 DOI: 10.1101/2023.08.10.552779] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/24/2023]
Abstract
All organisms utilize S-adenosyl-l-methionine (SAM) as a key co-substrate for methylation of biological molecules, synthesis of polyamines, and radical SAM reactions. When these processes occur, 5'-deoxy-nucleosides are formed as byproducts such as S-adenosyl-l-homocysteine (SAH), 5'-methylthioadenosine (MTA), and 5'-deoxyadenosine (5dAdo). One of the most prevalent pathways found in bacteria for the metabolism of MTA and 5dAdo is the DHAP shunt, which converts these compounds into dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) and 2-methylthioacetaldehyde or acetaldehyde, respectively. Previous work has shown that the DHAP shunt can enable methionine synthesis from MTA or serve as an MTA and 5dAdo detoxification pathway. Here we show that in Extraintestinal Pathogenic E. coil (ExPEC), the DHAP shunt serves none of these roles in any significant capacity, but rather physiologically functions as an assimilation pathway for use of MTA and 5dAdo as growth substrates. This is further supported by the observation that when MTA is the substrate for the ExPEC DHAP shunt, the sulfur components is not significantly recycled back to methionine, but rather accumulates as 2-methylthioethanol, which is slowly oxidized non-enzymatically under aerobic conditions. While the pathway is active both aerobically and anaerobically, it only supports aerobic ExPEC growth, suggesting that it primarily functions in oxygenic extraintestinal environments like blood and urine versus the predominantly anoxic gut. This reveals a heretofore overlooked role of the DHAP shunt in carbon assimilation and energy metabolism from ubiquitous SAM utilization byproducts and suggests a similar role may occur in other pathogenic and non-pathogenic bacteria with the DHAP shunt.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Joshua T. Groves
- The Ohio State University Department of Microbiology, Columbus, OH, 43210
| | - John A. Wildenthal
- The Ohio State University Department of Microbiology, Columbus, OH, 43210
| | - F. Robert Tabita
- The Ohio State University Department of Microbiology, Columbus, OH, 43210
| | - Justin A. North
- The Ohio State University Department of Microbiology, Columbus, OH, 43210
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Frieboes HB, Raghavan S, Godin B. Modeling of Nanotherapy Response as a Function of the Tumor Microenvironment: Focus on Liver Metastasis. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2020; 8:1011. [PMID: 32974325 PMCID: PMC7466654 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2020.01011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2020] [Accepted: 08/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The tumor microenvironment (TME) presents a challenging barrier for effective nanotherapy-mediated drug delivery to solid tumors. In particular for tumors less vascularized than the surrounding normal tissue, as in liver metastases, the structure of the organ itself conjures with cancer-specific behavior to impair drug transport and uptake by cancer cells. Cells and elements in the TME of hypovascularized tumors play a key role in the process of delivery and retention of anti-cancer therapeutics by nanocarriers. This brief review describes the drug transport challenges and how they are being addressed with advanced in vitro 3D tissue models as well as with in silico mathematical modeling. This modeling complements network-oriented techniques, which seek to interpret intra-cellular relevant pathways and signal transduction within cells and with their surrounding microenvironment. With a concerted effort integrating experimental observations with computational analyses spanning from the molecular- to the tissue-scale, the goal of effective nanotherapy customized to patient tumor-specific conditions may be finally realized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hermann B. Frieboes
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY, United States
- James Graham Brown Cancer Center, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY, United States
- Center for Predictive Medicine, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY, United States
| | - Shreya Raghavan
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States
- Department of Nanomedicine, Houston Methodist Research Institute, Houston, TX, United States
| | - Biana Godin
- Department of Nanomedicine, Houston Methodist Research Institute, Houston, TX, United States
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Houston Methodist Hospital, Houston, TX, United States
- Developmental Therapeutics Program, Houston Methodist Cancer Center, Houston Methodist Hospital, Houston, TX, United States
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North JA, Wildenthal JA, Erb TJ, Evans BS, Byerly KM, Gerlt JA, Tabita FR. A bifunctional salvage pathway for two distinct S-adenosylmethionine by-products that is widespread in bacteria, including pathogenic Escherichia coli. Mol Microbiol 2020; 113:923-937. [PMID: 31950558 DOI: 10.1111/mmi.14459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2019] [Revised: 01/08/2020] [Accepted: 01/12/2020] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
S-adenosyl-l-methionine (SAM) is a necessary cosubstrate for numerous essential enzymatic reactions including protein and nucleotide methylations, secondary metabolite synthesis and radical-mediated processes. Radical SAM enzymes produce 5'-deoxyadenosine, and SAM-dependent enzymes for polyamine, neurotransmitter and quorum sensing compound synthesis produce 5'-methylthioadenosine as by-products. Both are inhibitory and must be addressed by all cells. This work establishes a bifunctional oxygen-independent salvage pathway for 5'-deoxyadenosine and 5'-methylthioadenosine in both Rhodospirillum rubrum and Extraintestinal Pathogenic Escherichia coli. Homologous genes for this pathway are widespread in bacteria, notably pathogenic strains within several families. A phosphorylase (Rhodospirillum rubrum) or separate nucleoside and kinase (Escherichia coli) followed by an isomerase and aldolase sequentially function to salvage these two wasteful and inhibitory compounds into adenine, dihydroxyacetone phosphate and acetaldehyde or (2-methylthio)acetaldehyde during both aerobic and anaerobic growth. Both SAM by-products are metabolized with equal affinity during aerobic and anaerobic growth conditions, suggesting that the dual-purpose salvage pathway plays a central role in numerous environments, notably the human body during infection. Our newly discovered bifunctional oxygen-independent pathway, widespread in bacteria, salvages at least two by-products of SAM-dependent enzymes for carbon and sulfur salvage, contributing to cell growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justin A North
- Department of Microbiology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - John A Wildenthal
- Department of Microbiology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Tobias J Erb
- Department of Biochemistry and Synthetic Metabolism, Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology, Marburg, Germany
| | - Bradley S Evans
- The Donald Danforth Plant Science Center, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Kathryn M Byerly
- Department of Microbiology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - John A Gerlt
- Department of Biochemistry, The Institute for Genomic Biology, Champaign, IL, USA.,Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL, USA
| | - Fred R Tabita
- Department of Microbiology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
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Sekowska A, Ashida H, Danchin A. Revisiting the methionine salvage pathway and its paralogues. Microb Biotechnol 2019; 12:77-97. [PMID: 30306718 PMCID: PMC6302742 DOI: 10.1111/1751-7915.13324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2018] [Revised: 08/24/2018] [Accepted: 09/14/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Methionine is essential for life. Its chemistry makes it fragile in the presence of oxygen. Aerobic living organisms have selected a salvage pathway (the MSP) that uses dioxygen to regenerate methionine, associated to a ratchet-like step that prevents methionine back degradation. Here, we describe the variation on this theme, developed across the tree of life. Oxygen appeared long after life had developed on Earth. The canonical MSP evolved from ancestors that used both predecessors of ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase oxygenase (RuBisCO) and methanethiol in intermediate steps. We document how these likely promiscuous pathways were also used to metabolize the omnipresent by-products of S-adenosylmethionine radical enzymes as well as the aromatic and isoprene skeleton of quinone electron acceptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnieszka Sekowska
- Institute of Cardiometabolism and NutritionHôpital de la Pitié‐SalpêtrièreParisFrance
| | - Hiroki Ashida
- Graduate School of Human Development and EnvironmentKobe UniversityKobeJapan
| | - Antoine Danchin
- Institute of Cardiometabolism and NutritionHôpital de la Pitié‐SalpêtrièreParisFrance
- Institute of Synthetic BiologyShenzhen Institutes of Advanced StudiesShenzhenChina
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Two Distinct Aerobic Methionine Salvage Pathways Generate Volatile Methanethiol in Rhodopseudomonas palustris. mBio 2018; 9:mBio.00407-18. [PMID: 29636438 PMCID: PMC5893883 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.00407-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
5'-Methyl-thioadenosine (MTA) is a dead-end, sulfur-containing metabolite and cellular inhibitor that arises from S-adenosyl-l-methionine-dependent reactions. Recent studies have indicated that there are diverse bacterial methionine salvage pathways (MSPs) for MTA detoxification and sulfur salvage. Here, via a combination of gene deletions and directed metabolite detection studies, we report that under aerobic conditions the facultatively anaerobic bacterium Rhodopseudomonas palustris employs both an MTA-isoprenoid shunt identical to that previously described in Rhodospirillum rubrum and a second novel MSP, both of which generate a methanethiol intermediate. The additional R. palustris aerobic MSP, a dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP)-methanethiol shunt, initially converts MTA to 2-(methylthio)ethanol and DHAP. This is identical to the initial steps of the recently reported anaerobic ethylene-forming MSP, the DHAP-ethylene shunt. The aerobic DHAP-methanethiol shunt then further metabolizes 2-(methylthio)ethanol to methanethiol, which can be directly utilized by O-acetyl-l-homoserine sulfhydrylase to regenerate methionine. This is in contrast to the anaerobic DHAP-ethylene shunt, which metabolizes 2-(methylthio)ethanol to ethylene and an unknown organo-sulfur intermediate, revealing functional diversity in MSPs utilizing a 2-(methylthio)ethanol intermediate. When MTA was fed to aerobically growing cells, the rate of volatile methanethiol release was constant irrespective of the presence of sulfate, suggesting a general housekeeping function for these MSPs up through the methanethiol production step. Methanethiol and dimethyl sulfide (DMS), two of the most important compounds of the global sulfur cycle, appear to arise not only from marine ecosystems but from terrestrial ones as well. These results reveal a possible route by which methanethiol might be biologically produced in soil and freshwater environments.IMPORTANCE Biologically available sulfur is often limiting in the environment. Therefore, many organisms have developed methionine salvage pathways (MSPs) to recycle sulfur-containing by-products back into the amino acid methionine. The metabolically versatile bacterium Rhodopseudomonas palustris is unusual in that it possesses two RuBisCOs and two RuBisCO-like proteins. While RuBisCO primarily serves as the carbon fixation enzyme of the Calvin cycle, RuBisCOs and certain RuBisCO-like proteins have also been shown to function in methionine salvage. This work establishes that only one of the R. palustris RuBisCO-like proteins functions as part of an MSP. Moreover, in the presence of oxygen, to salvage sulfur, R. palustris employs two pathways, both of which result in production of volatile methanethiol, a key compound of the global sulfur cycle. When total available sulfur was plentiful, methanethiol was readily released into the environment. However, when sulfur became limiting, methanethiol release decreased, presumably due to methanethiol utilization to regenerate needed methionine.
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Gene-metabolite profile integration to understand the cause of spaceflight induced immunodeficiency. NPJ Microgravity 2018; 4:4. [PMID: 29387784 PMCID: PMC5788863 DOI: 10.1038/s41526-017-0038-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2017] [Revised: 11/06/2017] [Accepted: 12/28/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Spaceflight presents a spectrum of stresses very different from those associated with terrestrial conditions. Our previous study (BMC Genom. 15: 659, 2014) integrated the expressions of mRNAs, microRNAs, and proteins and results indicated that microgravity induces an immunosuppressive state that can facilitate opportunistic pathogenic attack. However, the existing data are not sufficient for elucidating the molecular drivers of the given immunosuppressed state. To meet this knowledge gap, we focused on the metabolite profile of spaceflown human cells. Independent studies have attributed cellular energy deficiency as a major cause of compromised immunity of the host, and metabolites that are closely associated with energy production could be a robust signature of atypical energy fluctuation. Our protocol involved inoculation of human endothelial cells in cell culture modules in spaceflight and on the ground concurrently. Ten days later, the cells in space and on the ground were exposed to lipopolysaccharide (LPS), a ubiquitous membrane endotoxin of Gram-negative bacteria. Nucleic acids, proteins, and metabolites were collected 4 and 8 h post-LPS exposure. Untargeted profiling of metabolites was followed by targeted identification of amino acids and knowledge integration with gene expression profiles. Consistent with the past reports associating microgravity with increased energy expenditure, we identified several markers linked to energy deficiency, including various amino acids such as tryptophan, creatinine, dopamine, and glycine, and cofactors such as lactate and pyruvate. The present study revealed a molecular architecture linking energy metabolism and immunodeficiency in microgravity. The energy-deficient condition potentially cascaded into dysregulation of protein metabolism and impairment of host immunity. This project is limited by a small sample size. Although a strict statistical screening was carefully implemented, the present results further emphasize the need for additional studies with larger sample sizes. Validating this hypothesis using an in vivo model is essential to extend the knowledge towards identifying markers of diagnostic and therapeutic value. Human cells challenged with a bacterial toxin show more signs of energy deficiency when flown in space than when cultured on the ground. Rasha Hammamieh from the US Army Center for Environmental Health Research in Frederick, Maryland, and colleagues exposed human endothelial cells in spaceflight to lipopolysaccharide, an immune response-triggering part of the bacterial membrane. They then collected nucleic acids, proteins and metabolites 4 and 8 h later, and saw a molecular architecture consistent with increased energy expenditure compared to matched control cells grown on Earth. Combined with the researchers’ previous finding that microgravity can induce an immunosuppressive state, the results suggest that energy imbalances potentially lead to problems with protein metabolism that ultimately impair the immune system. The authors propose that reversing this energy depletion could help enhance the immune health of astronauts.
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North JA, Miller AR, Wildenthal JA, Young SJ, Tabita FR. Microbial pathway for anaerobic 5'-methylthioadenosine metabolism coupled to ethylene formation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2017; 114:E10455-E10464. [PMID: 29133429 PMCID: PMC5715764 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1711625114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Numerous cellular processes involving S-adenosyl-l-methionine result in the formation of the toxic by-product, 5'-methylthioadenosine (MTA). To prevent inhibitory MTA accumulation and retain biologically available sulfur, most organisms possess the "universal" methionine salvage pathway (MSP). However, the universal MSP is inherently aerobic due to a requirement of molecular oxygen for one of the key enzymes. Here, we report the presence of an exclusively anaerobic MSP that couples MTA metabolism to ethylene formation in the phototrophic bacteria Rhodospirillum rubrum and Rhodopseudomonas palustris In vivo metabolite analysis of gene deletion strains demonstrated that this anaerobic MSP functions via sequential action of MTA phosphorylase (MtnP), 5-(methylthio)ribose-1-phosphate isomerase (MtnA), and an annotated class II aldolase-like protein (Ald2) to form 2-(methylthio)acetaldehyde as an intermediate. 2-(Methylthio)acetaldehyde is reduced to 2-(methylthio)ethanol, which is further metabolized as a usable organic sulfur source, generating stoichiometric amounts of ethylene in the process. Ethylene induction experiments using 2-(methylthio)ethanol versus sulfate as sulfur sources further indicate anaerobic ethylene production from 2-(methylthio)ethanol requires protein synthesis and that this process is regulated. Finally, phylogenetic analysis reveals that the genes corresponding to these enzymes, and presumably the pathway, are widespread among anaerobic and facultatively anaerobic bacteria from soil and freshwater environments. These results not only establish the existence of a functional, exclusively anaerobic MSP, but they also suggest a possible route by which ethylene is produced by microbes in anoxic environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justin A North
- Department of Microbiology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210
| | - Anthony R Miller
- Department of Microbiology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210
| | - John A Wildenthal
- Department of Microbiology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210
| | - Sarah J Young
- Department of Microbiology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210
| | - F Robert Tabita
- Department of Microbiology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210
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Anneleen D, Anita VL, Lynn V. Mass Spectrometry for the Detection of Endogenous Steroids and Steroid Abuse in (Race) Horses and Human Athletes. Mass Spectrom (Tokyo) 2017. [DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.68593] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
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Scott Chialvo CH, Che R, Reif D, Motsinger-Reif A, Reed LK. Eigenvector metabolite analysis reveals dietary effects on the association among metabolite correlation patterns, gene expression, and phenotypes. Metabolomics 2016; 12:167. [PMID: 28845148 PMCID: PMC5568542 DOI: 10.1007/s11306-016-1117-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2016] [Accepted: 09/06/2016] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION 'Multi-omics' datasets obtained from an organism of interest reared under different environmental treatments are increasingly common. Identifying the links among metabolites and transcripts can help to elucidate our understanding of the impact of environment at different levels within the organism. However, many methods for characterizing physiological connections cannot address unidentified metabolites. OBJECTIVES Here, we use Eigenvector Metabolite Analysis (EvMA) to examine links between metabolomic, transcriptomic, and phenotypic variation data and to assess the impact of environmental factors on these associations. Unlike other methods, EvMA can be used to analyze datasets that include unidentified metabolites and unannotated transcripts. METHODS To demonstrate the utility of EvMA, we analyzed metabolomic, transcriptomic, and phenotypic datasets produced from 20 Drosophila melanogaster genotypes reared on four dietary treatments. We used a hierarchical distance-based method to cluster the metabolites. The links between metabolite clusters, gene expression, and overt phenotypes were characterized using the eigenmetabolite (first principal component) of each cluster. RESULTS EvMA recovered chemically related groups of metabolites within the clusters. Using the eigenmetabolite, we identified genes and phenotypes that significantly correlated with each cluster. EvMA identifies new connections between the phenotypes, metabolites, and gene transcripts. Conclusion EvMA provides a simple method to identify correlations between metabolites, gene expression, and phenotypes, which can allow us to partition multivariate datasets into meaningful biological modules and identify under-studied metabolites and unannotated gene transcripts that may be central to important biological processes. This can be used to inform our understanding of the effect of environmental mechanisms underlying physiological states of interest.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clare H Scott Chialvo
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alabama, Box 870344, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487, USA
| | - Ronglin Che
- Department of Statistics, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA
| | - David Reif
- Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA
| | | | - Laura K Reed
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alabama, Box 870344, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487, USA
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Metabolic Regulation as a Consequence of Anaerobic 5-Methylthioadenosine Recycling in Rhodospirillum rubrum. mBio 2016; 7:mBio.00855-16. [PMID: 27406564 PMCID: PMC4958253 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.00855-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Rhodospirillum rubrum possesses a novel oxygen-independent, aerobic methionine salvage pathway (MSP) for recycling methionine from 5-methylthioadenosine (MTA), the MTA-isoprenoid shunt. This organism can also metabolize MTA as a sulfur source under anaerobic conditions, suggesting that the MTA-isoprenoid shunt may also function anaerobically as well. In this study, deep proteomics profiling, directed metabolite analysis, and reverse transcriptase quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) revealed metabolic changes in response to anaerobic growth on MTA versus sulfate as sole sulfur source. The abundance of protein levels associated with methionine transport, cell motility, and chemotaxis increased in the presence of MTA over that in the presence of sulfate. Purine salvage from MTA resulted primarily in hypoxanthine accumulation and a decrease in protein levels involved in GMP-to-AMP conversion to balance purine pools. Acyl coenzyme A (acyl-CoA) metabolic protein levels for lipid metabolism were lower in abundance, whereas poly-β-hydroxybutyrate synthesis and storage were increased nearly 10-fold. The known R. rubrum aerobic MSP was also shown to be upregulated, to function anaerobically, and to recycle MTA. This suggested that other organisms with gene homologues for the MTA-isoprenoid shunt may also possess a functioning anaerobic MSP. In support of our previous findings that ribulose-1,5-carboxylase/oxygenase (RubisCO) is required for an apparently purely anaerobic MSP, RubisCO transcript and protein levels both increased in abundance by over 10-fold in cells grown anaerobically on MTA over those in cells grown on sulfate, resulting in increased intracellular RubisCO activity. These results reveal for the first time global metabolic responses as a consequence of anaerobic MTA metabolism compared to using sulfate as the sulfur source. In nearly all organisms, sulfur-containing byproducts result from many metabolic reactions. Unless these compounds are further metabolized, valuable organic sulfur is lost and can become limiting. To regenerate the sulfur-containing amino acid methionine, organisms typically employ one of several variations of a “universal” methionine salvage pathway (MSP). A common aspect of the universal MSP is a final oxygenation step. This work establishes that the metabolically versatile bacterium Rhodospirillum rubrum employs a novel MSP that does not require oxygen under either aerobic or anaerobic conditions. There is also a separate, dedicated anaerobic MTA metabolic route in R. rubrum. This work reveals global changes in cellular metabolism in response to anaerobic MTA metabolism compared to using sulfate as a sulfur source. We found that cell mobility and transport were enhanced, along with lipid, nucleotide, and carbohydrate metabolism, when cells were grown in the presence of MTA.
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Guan Z, Xue D, Abdallah II, Dijkshoorn L, Setroikromo R, Lv G, Quax WJ. Metabolic engineering of Bacillus subtilis for terpenoid production. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2015; 99:9395-406. [PMID: 26373726 PMCID: PMC4628092 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-015-6950-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2015] [Revised: 08/17/2015] [Accepted: 08/20/2015] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Terpenoids are the largest group of small-molecule natural products, with more than 60,000 compounds made from isopentenyl diphosphate (IPP) and its isomer dimethylallyl diphosphate (DMAPP). As the most diverse group of small-molecule natural products, terpenoids play an important role in the pharmaceutical, food, and cosmetic industries. For decades, Escherichia coli (E. coli) and Saccharomyces cerevisiae (S. cerevisiae) were extensively studied to biosynthesize terpenoids, because they are both fully amenable to genetic modifications and have vast molecular resources. On the other hand, our literature survey (20 years) revealed that terpenoids are naturally more widespread in Bacillales. In the mid-1990s, an inherent methylerythritol phosphate (MEP) pathway was discovered in Bacillus subtilis (B. subtilis). Since B. subtilis is a generally recognized as safe (GRAS) organism and has long been used for the industrial production of proteins, attempts to biosynthesize terpenoids in this bacterium have aroused much interest in the scientific community. This review discusses metabolic engineering of B. subtilis for terpenoid production, and encountered challenges will be discussed. We will summarize some major advances and outline future directions for exploiting the potential of B. subtilis as a desired "cell factory" to produce terpenoids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zheng Guan
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy, University of Groningen, Antonius Deusinglaan 1, Building 3215, room 917, 9713 AV, Groningen, The Netherlands
- Institute of Materia Medica, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, 310053, China
| | - Dan Xue
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy, University of Groningen, Antonius Deusinglaan 1, Building 3215, room 917, 9713 AV, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Ingy I Abdallah
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy, University of Groningen, Antonius Deusinglaan 1, Building 3215, room 917, 9713 AV, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Linda Dijkshoorn
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy, University of Groningen, Antonius Deusinglaan 1, Building 3215, room 917, 9713 AV, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Rita Setroikromo
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy, University of Groningen, Antonius Deusinglaan 1, Building 3215, room 917, 9713 AV, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Guiyuan Lv
- Institute of Materia Medica, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, 310053, China
| | - Wim J Quax
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy, University of Groningen, Antonius Deusinglaan 1, Building 3215, room 917, 9713 AV, Groningen, The Netherlands.
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