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Williams AL, Scorzo AV, Strawbridge RR, Davis SC, Niedre M. Two-color diffuse in vivo flow cytometer. JOURNAL OF BIOMEDICAL OPTICS 2024; 29:065003. [PMID: 38818515 PMCID: PMC11138342 DOI: 10.1117/1.jbo.29.6.065003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2024] [Revised: 04/26/2024] [Accepted: 05/14/2024] [Indexed: 06/01/2024]
Abstract
Significance Hematogenous metastasis is mediated by circulating tumor cells (CTCs) and CTC clusters (CTCCs). We recently developed "diffuse in vivo flow cytometry" (DiFC) to detect fluorescent protein (FP) expressing CTCs in small animals. Extending DiFC to allow detection of two FPs simultaneously would allow concurrent study of different CTC sub-populations or heterogeneous CTCCs in the same animal. Aim The goal of this work was to develop and validate a two-color DiFC system capable of non-invasively detecting circulating cells expressing two distinct FPs. Approach A DiFC instrument was designed and built to detect cells expressing either green FP (GFP) or tdTomato. We tested the instrument in tissue-mimicking flow phantoms in vitro and in multiple myeloma bearing mice in vivo. Results In phantoms, we could accurately differentiate GFP+ and tdTomato+ CTCs and CTCCs. In tumor-bearing mice, CTC numbers expressing both FPs increased during disease. Most CTCCs (86.5%) expressed single FPs with the remainder both FPs. These data were supported by whole-body hyperspectral fluorescence cryo-imaging of the mice. Conclusions We showed that two-color DiFC can detect two populations of CTCs and CTCCs concurrently. This instrument could allow study of tumor development and response to therapies for different sub-populations in the same animal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amber L. Williams
- Northeastern University, Department of Bioengineering, Boston, Massachusetts, United States
| | - Augustino V. Scorzo
- Dartmouth College, Thayer School of Engineering, Hanover, New Hampshire, United States
| | | | - Scott C. Davis
- Dartmouth College, Thayer School of Engineering, Hanover, New Hampshire, United States
| | - Mark Niedre
- Northeastern University, Department of Bioengineering, Boston, Massachusetts, United States
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Pace J, Lee JJ, Srinivasarao M, Kallepu S, Low PS, Niedre M. In Vivo Labeling and Detection of Circulating Tumor Cells in Mice Using OTL38. Mol Imaging Biol 2024:10.1007/s11307-024-01914-0. [PMID: 38594545 DOI: 10.1007/s11307-024-01914-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2023] [Revised: 03/04/2024] [Accepted: 03/30/2024] [Indexed: 04/11/2024]
Abstract
PURPOSE We recently developed an optical instrument to non-invasively detect fluorescently labeled circulating tumor cells (CTCs) in mice called 'Diffuse in vivo Flow Cytometry' (DiFC). OTL38 is a folate receptor (FR) targeted near-infrared (NIR) contrast agent that is FDA approved for use in fluorescence guided surgery of ovarian and lung cancer. In this work, we investigated the use OTL38 for in vivo labeling and detection of FR + CTCs with DiFC. PROCEDURES We tested OTL38 labeling of FR + cancer cell lines (IGROV-1 and L1210A) as well as FR- MM.1S cells in suspensions of Human Peripheral Blood Mononuclear cells (PBMCs) in vitro. We also tested OTL38 labeling and NIR-DIFC detection of FR + L1210A cells in blood circulation in nude mice in vivo. RESULTS 62% of IGROV-1 and 83% of L1210A were labeled above non-specific background levels in suspensions of PBMCs in vitro compared to only 2% of FR- MM.1S cells. L1210A cells could be labeled with OTL38 directly in circulation in vivo and externally detected using NIR-DiFC in mice with low false positive detection rates. CONCLUSIONS This work shows the feasibility of labeling CTCs in vivo with OTL38 and detection with DiFC. Although further refinement of the DiFC instrument and signal processing algorithms and testing with other animal models is needed, this work may eventually pave the way for human use of DiFC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua Pace
- Department of Bioengineering, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Jane J Lee
- Department of Bioengineering, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | | | | | - Philip S Low
- Department of Chemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, 047906, USA
| | - Mark Niedre
- Department of Bioengineering, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.
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Zhao L, Fang Y, Chen X, Meng Y, Wang F, Li C. Carbon dot-based fluorescent probe for early diagnosis of pheochromocytoma through identification of circulating tumor cells. SPECTROCHIMICA ACTA. PART A, MOLECULAR AND BIOMOLECULAR SPECTROSCOPY 2024; 310:123921. [PMID: 38271847 DOI: 10.1016/j.saa.2024.123921] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2023] [Revised: 12/19/2023] [Accepted: 01/18/2024] [Indexed: 01/27/2024]
Abstract
Pheochromocytoma (PCC), as a rare neuroendocrine tumor, is often missed or misdiagnosed because of its atypical clinical manifestations. To realize the early accurate diagnosis of PCC, we have selected circulating tumor cells (CTCs) with more complete biological information as biomarkers and developed a simple and novel fluorescence cytosensor. Octreotide-2,2',2'',2'''- (1,4,7,10 -tetraazacyclododecane-1,4,7,10-tetrayl) tetraacetic acid (DOTA) modified magnetic Fe3O4 and signal amplification CDs@SiO2 nanospheres are prepared to capture and detect PCC-CTCs from peripheral blood via binding to the somatostatin receptor SSTR2 overexpressed on the surface of PCC cells. During the detection process, the target cells were separated and enriched by magnetic capture probes (Fe3O4-DOTA), and then signal probes (CDs@SiO2-DOTA) could also specifically bound to target cells to form the sandwich-like structure for fluorescence signal output. The proposed fluorescence cytosensor has revealed good sensitivity and selectivity for quantitative analysis of PCC-CTCs in the concentration of 5-1000 cells mL-1 with a LOD of 2 cells mL-1. More importantly, designed fluorescence cytosensor has shown good reliability and stability in complex serum samples. This strategy provides a new way for detection of PCC-CTCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liping Zhao
- Department of Chemistry, School of Science, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 211198, Jiangsu, PR China
| | - Yiwei Fang
- Department of Chemistry, School of Science, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 211198, Jiangsu, PR China
| | - Xinhe Chen
- Department of Chemistry, School of Science, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 211198, Jiangsu, PR China
| | - Yang Meng
- Department of Chemistry, School of Science, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 211198, Jiangsu, PR China
| | - Fei Wang
- Department of Chemistry, School of Science, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 211198, Jiangsu, PR China; Cell and Biomolecule Recognition Research Center, School of Science, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 211198, Jiangsu, PR China.
| | - Caolong Li
- Department of Chemistry, School of Science, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 211198, Jiangsu, PR China; Cell and Biomolecule Recognition Research Center, School of Science, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 211198, Jiangsu, PR China.
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Guo L, Liu C, Qi M, Cheng L, Wang L, Li C, Dong B. Recent progress of nanostructure-based enrichment of circulating tumor cells and downstream analysis. LAB ON A CHIP 2023; 23:1493-1523. [PMID: 36776104 DOI: 10.1039/d2lc00890d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
The isolation and detection of circulating tumor cells (CTCs) play an important role in early cancer diagnosis and prognosis, providing easy access to identify metastatic cells before clinically detectable metastases. In the past 20 years, according to the heterogeneous expression of CTCs on the surface and their special physical properties (size, morphology, electricity, etc.), a series of in vitro enrichment methods of CTCs have been developed based on microfluidic chip technology, nanomaterials and various nanostructures. In recent years, the in vivo detection of CTCs has attracted considerable attention. Photoacoustic flow cytometry and fluorescence flow cytometry were used to detect CTCs in a noninvasive manner. In addition, flexible magnetic wire and indwelling intravascular non-circulating CTCs isolation system were developed for in vivo CTCs study. In the aspect of downstream analysis, gene analysis and drug sensitivity tests of enriched CTCs were developed based on various existing molecular analysis techniques. All of these studies constitute a complete study of CTCs. Although the existing reviews mainly focus on one aspect of capturing CTCs study, a review that includes the in vivo and in vitro capture and downstream analysis study of CTCs is highly needed. This review focuses on not only the classic work and latest research progress in in vitro capture but also includes the in vivo capture and downstream analysis, discussing the advantages and significance of the different research methods and providing new ideas for solving the heterogeneity and rarity of CTCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lihua Guo
- State Key Laboratory on Integrated Optoelectronics, College of Electronic Science and Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun, 130012, P. R. China.
| | - Chang Liu
- State Key Laboratory on Integrated Optoelectronics, College of Electronic Science and Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun, 130012, P. R. China.
| | - Manlin Qi
- Department of Oral Implantology, Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of Tooth Development and Bone Remodeling, School of Stomatology, Jilin University, Changchun, 130021, P. R. China.
| | - Liang Cheng
- Department of Oral Implantology, Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of Tooth Development and Bone Remodeling, School of Stomatology, Jilin University, Changchun, 130021, P. R. China.
| | - Lin Wang
- Department of Oral Implantology, Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of Tooth Development and Bone Remodeling, School of Stomatology, Jilin University, Changchun, 130021, P. R. China.
| | - Chunxia Li
- Institute of Molecular Sciences and Engineering, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237, P. R. China.
| | - Biao Dong
- State Key Laboratory on Integrated Optoelectronics, College of Electronic Science and Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun, 130012, P. R. China.
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Pace J, Ivich F, Marple E, Niedre M. Near-infrared diffuse in vivo flow cytometry. JOURNAL OF BIOMEDICAL OPTICS 2022; 27:JBO-220101GR. [PMID: 36114606 PMCID: PMC9478904 DOI: 10.1117/1.jbo.27.9.097002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2022] [Accepted: 09/07/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Significance Diffuse in vivo flow cytometry (DiFC) is an emerging technique for enumerating rare fluorescently labeled circulating cells noninvasively in the bloodstream. Thus far, we have reported red and blue-green versions of DiFC. Use of near-infrared (NIR) fluorescent light would in principle allow use of DiFC in deeper tissues and would be compatible with emerging NIR fluorescence molecular contrast agents. Aim We describe the design of a NIR-DiFC instrument and demonstrate its use in optical flow phantoms in vitro and in mice in vivo. Approach We developed an improved optical fiber probe design for efficient collection of fluorescence from individual circulating cells and efficient rejection of instrument autofluorescence. We built a NIR-DiFC instrument. We tested this with NIR fluorescent microspheres and cell lines labeled with OTL38 fluorescence contrast agent in a flow phantom model. We also tested NIR-DiFC in nude mice injected intravenously with OTL38-labeled L1210A cells. Results NIR-DiFC allowed detection of circulating tumor cells (CTCs) in flow phantoms with mean signal-to-noise ratios (SNRs) of 19 to 32 dB. In mice, fluorescently labeled CTCs were detectable with mean SNR of 26 dB. NIR-DiFC also exhibited orders significantly lower autofluorescence and false-alarm rates than blue-green DiFC. Conclusions NIR-DiFC allows use of emerging NIR contrast agents. Our work could pave the way for future use of NIR-DiFC in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua Pace
- Northeastern University, Department of Bioengineering, Boston, Massachusetts, United States
| | - Fernando Ivich
- Northeastern University, Department of Bioengineering, Boston, Massachusetts, United States
| | - Eric Marple
- EmVision LLC, Loxahatchee, Florida, United States
| | - Mark Niedre
- Northeastern University, Department of Bioengineering, Boston, Massachusetts, United States
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Ivich F, Pace J, Williams AL, Shumel M, Fang Q, Niedre M. Signal and measurement considerations for human translation of diffuse in vivo flow cytometry. JOURNAL OF BIOMEDICAL OPTICS 2022; 27:JBO-220066R. [PMID: 35726129 PMCID: PMC9207655 DOI: 10.1117/1.jbo.27.6.067001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2022] [Accepted: 05/27/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
SIGNIFICANCE "Diffuse in vivo flow cytometry" (DiFC) is an emerging technology for fluorescence detection of rare circulating cells directly in large deep-seated blood vessels in mice. Because DiFC uses highly scattered light, in principle, it could be translated to human use. However, an open question is whether fluorescent signals from single cells would be detectable in human-scale anatomies. AIM Suitable blood vessels in a human wrist or forearm are at a depth of ∼2 to 4 mm. The aim of this work was to study the impact of DiFC instrument geometry and wavelength on the detected DiFC signal and on the maximum depth of detection of a moving cell. APPROACH We used Monte Carlo simulations to compute fluorescence Jacobian (sensitivity) matrices for a range of source and detector separations (SDS) and tissue optical properties over the visible and near infrared spectrum. We performed experimental measurements with three available versions of DiFC (488, 640, and 780 nm), fluorescent microspheres, and tissue mimicking optical flow phantoms. We used both computational and experimental data to estimate the maximum depth of detection at each combination of settings. RESULTS For the DiFC detection problem, our analysis showed that for deep-seated blood vessels, the maximum sensitivity was obtained with NIR light (780 nm) and 3-mm SDS. CONCLUSIONS These results suggest that-in combination with a suitable molecularly targeted fluorescent probes-circulating cells and nanosensors could, in principle, be detectable in circulation in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando Ivich
- Northeastern University, Department of Bioengineering, Boston, Massachusetts, United States
| | - Joshua Pace
- Northeastern University, Department of Bioengineering, Boston, Massachusetts, United States
| | - Amber L. Williams
- Northeastern University, Department of Bioengineering, Boston, Massachusetts, United States
| | - Malcolm Shumel
- Northeastern University, Department of Bioengineering, Boston, Massachusetts, United States
| | - Qianqian Fang
- Northeastern University, Department of Bioengineering, Boston, Massachusetts, United States
| | - Mark Niedre
- Northeastern University, Department of Bioengineering, Boston, Massachusetts, United States
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Williams AL, Fitzgerald JE, Ivich F, Sontag ED, Niedre M. Short-Term Circulating Tumor Cell Dynamics in Mouse Xenograft Models and Implications for Liquid Biopsy. Front Oncol 2020; 10:601085. [PMID: 33240820 PMCID: PMC7677561 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2020.601085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2020] [Accepted: 10/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
MOTIVATION Circulating tumor cells (CTCs) are widely studied using liquid biopsy methods that analyze fractionally-small peripheral blood (PB) samples. However, little is known about natural fluctuations in CTC numbers that may occur over short timescales in vivo, and how these may affect detection and enumeration of rare CTCs from small blood samples. METHODS We recently developed an optical instrument called "diffuse in vivo flow cytometry" (DiFC) that uniquely allows continuous, non-invasive counting of rare, green fluorescent protein expressing CTCs in large blood vessels in mice. Here, we used DiFC to study short-term changes in CTC numbers in multiple myeloma and Lewis lung carcinoma xenograft models. We analyzed CTC detections in over 100 h of DiFC data, and considered intervals corresponding to approximately 1%, 5%, 10%, and 20% of the PB volume. In addition, we analyzed changes in CTC numbers over 24 h (diurnal) periods. RESULTS For rare CTCs (fewer than 1 CTC per ml of blood), the use of short DiFC intervals (corresponding to small PB samples) frequently resulted in no detections. For more abundant CTCs, CTC numbers frequently varied by an order of magnitude or more over the time-scales considered. This variance in CTC detections far exceeded that expected by Poisson statistics or by instrument variability. Rather, the data were consistent with significant changes in mean numbers of CTCs on the timescales of minutes and hours. CONCLUSIONS The observed temporal changes can be explained by known properties of CTCs, namely, the continuous shedding of CTCs from tumors and the short half-life of CTCs in blood. It follows that the number of cells in a blood sample are strongly impacted by the timing of the draw. The issue is likely to be compounded for multicellular CTC clusters or specific CTC subtypes, which are even more rare than single CTCs. However, we show that enumeration can in principle be improved by averaging multiple samples, analysis of larger volumes, or development of methods for enumeration of CTCs directly in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amber L. Williams
- Department of Bioengineering, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, United States
| | | | - Fernando Ivich
- Department of Bioengineering, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Eduardo D. Sontag
- Department of Bioengineering, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, United States
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, United States
- Laboratory of Systems Pharmacology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Mark Niedre
- Department of Bioengineering, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, United States
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Fitzgerald JE, Byrd BK, Patil RA, Strawbridge RR, Davis SC, Bellini C, Niedre M. Heterogeneity of circulating tumor cell dissemination and lung metastases in a subcutaneous Lewis lung carcinoma model. BIOMEDICAL OPTICS EXPRESS 2020; 11:3633-3647. [PMID: 33014556 PMCID: PMC7510907 DOI: 10.1364/boe.395289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2020] [Revised: 05/26/2020] [Accepted: 05/31/2020] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Subcutaneous (s.c.) tumor models are widely used in pre-clinical cancer metastasis research. Despite this, the dynamics and natural progression of circulating tumor cells (CTCs) and CTC clusters (CTCCs) in peripheral blood are poorly understood in these models. In this work, we used a new technique called 'diffuse in vivo flow cytometry' (DiFC) to study CTC and CTCC dissemination in an s.c. Lewis lung carcinoma (LLC) model in mice. Tumors were grown in the rear flank and we performed DiFC up to 31 days after inoculation. At the study endpoint, lungs were excised and bioluminescence imaging (BLI) was performed to determine the extent of lung metastases. We also used fluorescence macro-cryotome imaging to visualize infiltration and growth of the primary tumor. DiFC revealed significant heterogeneity in CTC and CTCC numbers amongst all mice studied, despite using clonally identical LLC cells and tumor placement. Maximum DiFC count rates corresponded to 0.1 to 14 CTCs per mL of peripheral blood. In general, CTC numbers did not necessarily increase monotonically over time and were poorly correlated with tumor volume. However, there was a good correlation between CTC and CTCC numbers in peripheral blood and lung metastases. We attribute the differences in CTC numbers primarily due to growth patterns of the primary tumor. This study is one of the few reports of CTC shedding dynamics in sub-cutaneous metastasis models and underscores the value of in vivo methods for continuous, non-invasive CTC monitoring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica E. Fitzgerald
- Department of Bioengineering, Northeastern University, 360 Huntington Avenue, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Brook K. Byrd
- Thayer School of Engineering, Dartmouth College, 14 Engineering Drive, Hanover, NH 03755, USA
| | - Roshani A. Patil
- Department of Bioengineering, Northeastern University, 360 Huntington Avenue, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Rendall R. Strawbridge
- Thayer School of Engineering, Dartmouth College, 14 Engineering Drive, Hanover, NH 03755, USA
| | - Scott C. Davis
- Thayer School of Engineering, Dartmouth College, 14 Engineering Drive, Hanover, NH 03755, USA
| | - Chiara Bellini
- Department of Bioengineering, Northeastern University, 360 Huntington Avenue, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Mark Niedre
- Department of Bioengineering, Northeastern University, 360 Huntington Avenue, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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