Fine and ultrafine particles emitted from laser printers as indoor air contaminants in German offices

Electrostatic fine particles emitted from laser printers as potential vectors for airborne transmission of COVID-19

The COVID-19 pandemic caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has infected more than 14 million people globally. Recently, airborne transmission has been postulated to be a major contributor to the spread of the novel coronavirus, especially in enclosed public spaces. While many studies have demonstrated positive correlations between atmospheric pollutants and SARS-CoV-2 infection, the impact of indoor air pollutants on airborne transmission has been largely overlooked. In particular, laser printers are a primary source of particle emission that increases the concentrations of particulate matter in indoor atmosphere by releasing substantial quantities of electrostatic fine particles, at rates comparable with tobacco smoking and incense burning. We hypothesized that particles emitted from laser printers present a potential risk factor for the transmission of SARS-CoV-2 in offices and other indoor environments with high user occupancy. To test this hypothesis, we reviewed recent knowledge on the characteristics of particles emitted by laser printing, including their emission rates and accumulation in indoor air, electrostatic charges, localized emission and subsequent particle diffusion in relation to the human breathing zone. We then discuss the potential impact on the transmission of SAR-CoV-2 in indoor spaces. We found that emission rates from laser printers ranged from 10⁸ to 10¹² particles min^-1, and these fine particles typically remain suspended for prolonged periods in indoor air. Electrostatic charges carried by these particles can reach 260-379 e per particle, thus enhancing their surface adsorption and deposition in human airways. Localized emission by laser printers and subsequent diffusion highly increase particle concentrations near the human breathing zone.