Dynamic leaching behavior of geogenic As in soils after cement-based stabilization/solidification

Immobilization of Cr in a heavily Cr(VI)-contaminated soil using alkali-activated blast furnace slag and calcium polysulfide: Remediation efficiency and mechanism

Chromium (Cr)-contaminated soil represents a significant environmental hazard, posing substantial risks to ecological systems. This study investigated the application of Calcium Polysulfide (CPS) and Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBFS) for the stabilization and solidification of Cr-rich soils. The research focused on four key aspects: leachability characteristics, mechanical strength development, hexavalent chromium [Cr(VI)] reduction efficiency, and stabilization mechanisms. Experimental results demonstrated that the treated soil achieved compressive strengths exceeding 2 MPa, indicating its potential suitability as a construction material for roadbeds. Both GGBFS and CPS exhibited strong reducing capabilities, effectively converting highly mobile Cr(VI) to the less mobile trivalent chromium [Cr(III)] species, thereby enhancing Cr stabilization. A reduction ratio of nearly 100 % was achieved with the theoretical dosage of CPS and 30 wt% GGBFS after 56 days of curing. The leached total Cr decreased from 295.6 to 2.1 mg/L, while the leached Cr(VI) concentration decreased from 165.1 mg/L to below the detection limit. The sequential extraction procedure according to Tessier's method demonstrated that chromium was predominantly transformed into more stable fractions, specifically the iron-manganese oxide-bound and residual forms. X-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy analyses revealed that the hydration products, predominantly calcium silicate hydrate and ettringite, effectively filled the pores and contributed to the formation of a denser microstructure. The stabilization mechanisms of Cr were identified to involve four key processes: (1) reduction of Cr(VI) to Cr(III), (2) physical encapsulation within the matrix, (3) adsorption onto hydration gels, and (4) ionic substitution of Cr(III) and Cr(VI) into the ettringite structure.

Influence of pH on the leaching behavior of a solidified arsenic contaminated soil

Stabilization/solidification is widely used for treatment of arsenic (As)-contaminated soils. The stability of the soil may deteriorate significantly when exposed to acid or alkaline leachate. In this study, semi-dynamic leaching tests under different pH were carried out to investigate the leaching behavior of As from the solidified soils. Spectroscopic and microscopic analyses were performed to reveal the related mechanisms. The results showed that the leaching of As was closely correlated with the pH of the leachate, because the encapsulation effect of the cementitious matrix and the chemical speciation and valence of As were all significantly influenced by pH. In the strongly acidic leachant (pH 3.0), the leached As concentration increased by an order of magnitude, and the effective diffusion coefficient of As reached 3.71 × 10-13 m2/s. This is because that pores and cracks increased owing to the acidic corrosion of CSH, such that the physical encapsulation effect was reduced and the mobility of As increased. The leachability index showed that the solidified soil was unsuitable for 'controlled utilization' under strongly acidic conditions. The leached As concentration was the lowest in the weakly alkaline leachant (pH 9.0) because under weakly alkaline conditions the hydration process of the cement was facilitated, and more CSH gels were attached to the surface of the soil particles, forming a tighter structure for As encapsulation. However, as pH increased from 9.0-11.0 the leached As concentration increased due to an increased content of As(III)-O in the solidified soil.

Ex Situ Stabilization/Solidification Approaches of Marine Sediments Using Green Cement Admixtures

The routine dredging of waterways produces huge volumes of sediments. Handling contaminated dredged sediments poses significant and diverse challenges around the world. In recent years, novel and sustainable ex situ remediation technologies for contaminated sediments have been developed and applied. This review article focuses on cement-based binders in stabilizing contaminants through the stabilization/solidification (S/S) technique and the utilization of contaminated sediments as a resource. Through S/S techniques, heavy metals can be solidified and stabilized in dense and durable solid matrices, reducing their permeability and restricting their release into the environment. Industrial by-products like red mud (RM), soda residue (SR), pulverized fly ash (PFA), and alkaline granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) can immobilize heavy metal ions such as lead, zinc, cadmium, copper, and chromium by precipitation. However, in a strong alkali environment, certain heavy metal ions might dissolve again. To address this, immobilization in low pH media can be achieved using materials like GGBS, metakaolin (MK), and incinerated sewage sludge ash (ISSA). Additionally, heavy metals can be also immobilized through the formation of silicate gels and ettringites during pozzolanic reactions by mechanisms such as adsorption, ion exchanges, and encapsulation. It is foreseeable that, in the future, the scientific community will increasingly turn towards multidisciplinary studies on novel materials, also after an evaluation of the effects on long-term heavy metal stabilization.

Effect of long-term dry-wet circulations on the Solidification/stabilization of Municipal solid waste incineration fly ash using a novel cementitious material

Solidification/stabilization (S/S) is a typical technique to immobilize toxic heavy metals in Municipal solid waste incineration fly ash (MSWI FA). This study utilized blast furnace slag, steel slag, desulfurization gypsum, and phosphoric acid sludge to develop a novel metallurgical slag based cementing material (MSCM). Its S/S effects of MSWI FA and long-term S/S effectiveness under dry-wet circulations (DWC) were evaluated and compared with ordinary Portland cement (OPC). The MSCM-FA block with 25 wt.% MSCM content achieved 28-day compressive strength of 9.38 MPa, indicating its high hydration reactivity. The leaching concentrations of Pb, Zn and Cd were just 51.4, 1895.8 and 36.1 μg/L, respectively, well below the limit standard of Municipal solid wastes in China (GB 16889-2008). After 30 times' DWC, leaching concentrations of Pb, Zn and Cd for MSCM-FA blocks increased up to 130.7, 9107.4 and 156.8 μg/L, respectively, but considerably lower than those for OPC-FA blocks (689, 11,870.6 and 185.2 μg/L, respectively). The XRD and chemical speciation analysis revealed the desorption of Pb, Zn and Cd attached to surface of C-S-H crystalline structure during the DWC. The XPS and SEM-EDS analysis confirmed the formation of Pb-O-Si and Zn-O-Si bonds via isomorphous replacement of C-A-S-H in binder-FA blocks. Ettringite crystalline structure in OPC-FA block was severely destructed during the DWC, resulting in the reduced contents of PbSO4 and CaZn2Si2O7·H2O and the higher leachability of Pb2+ and Zn2+.

Review on stabilization/solidification methods and mechanism of heavy metals based on OPC-based binders

Stabilization/solidification (S/S) with ordinary portland cement (OPC)-based binders is a suitable method to remediate heavy metal (HM)-contaminated soil and reuse resources of industrial wastes. In industrial wastes, alkaline wastes such as red mud (RM), soda residue (SR), pulverized fly ash (PFA), and alkalinity granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) can immobilize HM ions (Pb²⁺, Zn²⁺, Cd²⁺, Cr³⁺, and Cu²⁺) by precipitation. However, some HM ions (such as AsO₄^3-) would redissolve within the strong alkali environment. In this case, PFA, GGBS, metakaolin (MK), and incinerated sewage sludge ash (ISSA) which have low pH, can be used to immobilize HM ions or added to the OPC-based binders to adjust the pH in the soil products. Moreover, the calcium silicate hydrate (CSH), calcium aluminum silicate hydrate (CASH), ettringite (AFt), and calcium monosulfoalumiante hydrates (AFm) generated during the pozzolanic reaction can also immobilize HM ions by adsorption on the surface, ion exchange, and encapsulation. SR and GGBS can be used to immobilize the HMs (such as CrO₄^2- and AsO₄^3-), which are mainly affected by AFt and AFm. For those not affected by AFt and AFm but related to immobilization by precipitating (such as Mn²⁺), other wastes except SR and GGBS are suitable for treating contaminated soil. Nevertheless, the formation of AFt is also instrumental for soil product strength. There are several factors affecting soil product strength. In the future, the influence of different hydration products on the S/S effects, competitive adsorption of HM ions, effects on long-term HM stabilization, and novel materials are worth being explored by researchers.

Chemical and mineralogical variability of sediment in a Quaternary aquifer from Huaihe River Basin, China: Implications for groundwater arsenic source and its mobilization

Arsenic (As) is a conspicuous contaminant, and exposure to this element through contaminated drinking groundwater poses a significant challenge to public health. Geogenic groundwater arsenic is associated with sedimentary setting. This work concentrates on the investigation of lithology, elemental abundance and mineralogical compositions about the arsenic profile and its effect to the groundwater from Huaihe River Basin, China. There are 90 sediment samples from the borehole at the field monitoring sites were collected and analyzed. The results reveal that sedimentary concentrations of As, Fe, Mn, S, Al, N, organic carbon and mineralogical compositions vary across the Quaternary aquifer. Arsenic abundance of sediments is 10.63 ± 0.56 mg/kg, and peak As concentrations occur between 59.0 m and 64.8 m in fine particle sediments. The specific higher As concentrations in sedimentary aquifer are concordant with arsenic-rich groundwater around the investigated borehole. Fe, Mn, and Al depth profiles follow similar tendency to those of As. Sedimentary As concentrations are significantly correlated to Fe, Al, and Mn concentrations, but are not correlated to organic carbon and S concentrations. Arsenic probably exists in the form of non-crystalline colloids, and Fe, Al minerals are potential host minerals for arsenic. Under alkaline conditions, groundwater arsenic is released and enriched within the Quaternary aquifer by reductive dissolution of As-hosting Fe and Al minerals.

Effects of microwave and plastic content on the sulfur migration during co-pyrolysis of biomass and plastic

In order to reduce the risks of sulfur-containing contaminants present in biofuels, the effects of microwave and content of hydrogen donor on the cracking of C-S bonds and the migration of sulfur were studied by co-pyrolysis of biomass and plastic. The synergistic mechanism of microwave and hydrogen donor was explored from the perspective of deducing the evolution of sulfur-containing compounds based on microwave thermogravimetric analysis. By combining temperature-weight curves, it was found that microwaves and hydrogen radicals promoted the cracking of sulfur-containing compounds and increased the mass loss of biomass during pyrolysis. The mixing ratio of hydrogen donor (plastic) was the key parameter resulting in the removal of sulfur from oil. By adjusting the mixing ratio, the yield of co-pyrolyzed oil was three times higher than that of cow dung pyrolysis alone and the relative removal rate of sulfur reached 73.67%. The relative content of sulfur in the oil was reduced by 73.77% due to the escape of sulfur-containing gases (H₂S, COS and C₂H₅SH) and the formation of sulfate crystals in the char. Microwave selectively heated sulfur-containing organics and hydrogen radicals stimulated the breaking of C-S bonds, which improved the cracking efficiency of the oil. This breaking will provide a theoretical and technological reference for the environmentally friendly treatment of biomass and biofuels.

Investigation on the pollution release characteristics of subgrade base materials prepared by oil-based cutting thermal desorption residues

The preparation of oil-based cutting thermal desorption residues into subgrade materials is one of the methods of their resource utilization. While the environmental safety for subgrade materials is lack of discussions. In this study, through the semi-dynamic leaching tests, the leaching characteristics of pollutants from residues subgrade materials under extremely acidic conditions were simulated. According to Fick's second law, combined with the effective diffusion coefficient (D_e), the risk of pollutant leaching and release in residue subgrade materials were evaluated. The concentrations of naphthalene, anthracene, benzo(a)anthracene, dibenzo(a,h)anthracene, Cd, and Zn met the requirements of class III water quality in the Chinese standard GB/T14848-2017. The release of naphthalene, anthracene, benzo(a)anthracene, dibenzo(a,h)anthracene, and Cd of leaching was dominated by diffusion. The release of benzo(a)pyrene and Zn of leaching was mainly dissolution. Hence, based on the investigation, the release law and characteristics of pollutants were explored when thermal desorption residues were applied as subgrade materials, which provided an important reference basis for the resource and utilization of oil-based cutting thermal desorption residues.

Arsenic adsorption by different Fe-enriched biochars conditioned with sulfuric acid

In this study, ferric chloride and sulfuric acid were used to increase the Fe-containing minerals on the biochar surface before a pyrolysis at 600 °C. The pristine and Fe-modified biochars prepared at different concentrations of sulfuric acid (50FBC and 72FBC) were characterized and analyzed, and their capacity of As(V) adsorption under various pH and ionic strength were evaluated. The results showed that the maximum adsorption capacities of As(V) calculated by the Langmuir model for 50FBC and 72FBC are 10.33 and 15.61 mg g-1, respectively, which are enhanced by 5.0 and 7.8 times compared with the pristine biochar. The higher dosage of H2SO4 (72%) used in the modification leads to a better adsorption capacity of As, especially under neutral to alkaline conditions (7.0 < pH < 10.0). It might result from the increased amounts of Fe-containing minerals formed on the biochar surface, and the enriched functional groups such as phenolic hydroxyl and carboxyl, resulting in the resistance to alkaline conditions. Overall, the Fe-modified biochar, especially 72FBC, had good potential as an environmentally friendly adsorbent for removing As from contaminated water under a wider pH range.

Effect of hydraulic binders' addition on trace metals stabilization in the S/S process of dredged sediments

The Solidification/Stabilization method for dredged sediments remediation can be very effective for the immobilization of trace metal (TM) pollutants. The ordinary Portland cement (OPC) is largely used in this process. Nevertheless, the mechanical performance of treated sediments can be considerably improved at long term using ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) as was shown in (Gutsalenko et al., 2018). Therefore, it is worth investigating whether this new binder is also relevant in terms of stabilization and mechanisms involved in this process. To meet this objective, leaching test, total attack, sequential extraction (SE) and X-ray Adsorption Near-Edge Structure (XANES) experiments measurements were performed. The results of the leaching tests conducted as part of the study are promising for the use of GGBS in the treatment of the real case project Dublin sediment and it outperforms the OPC-based treatment.. The sequential extraction method was applied to evaluate the potential risks of toxic elements according to their repartition in the Dublin sediment matrix and predicts the release of metals under different environmental conditions. It shows a lower perturbation rate of pollutants with the GGBS-based binder. Finally, XANES experiments demonstrate changes in the chemical environment of Zn and Cu after the treatment of the sediment with OPC compared to the GGBS rich binder. Consequently, this study finds that it is more pertinent to use the GGBS-based binder in terms of trace metal stabilization.

Evaluation of the effectiveness of ex-situ stabilization for arsenic and antimony contaminated soil: Short-term and long-term leaching characteristics

Ex-situ stabilization for As and Sb co-contaminated soil was conducted through an iron-based stabilizer, PFSC (a mixture of polymerized ferric sulfate (PFS) and hydrated lime (Ca(OH₂)) with a dry mass ratio of 2:1). After field aging for one week, the stabilized contaminated soil was subjected to a horizontal vibration leaching test (HJ 557), Wenzel's sequential extraction, and a semi-dynamic leaching test (ANS 16.1). By assessing the cumulative fractions of As and Sb, the observed diffusion coefficients (D^obs) and leachability indices (LX) of metalloids released from the soil specimens were calculated. The PFSC ex-situ stabilization was effective to immobilize metalloids, and the As and Sb leached concentrations of stabilized contaminated soil samples were lower than remediation targets. Nonspecifically bound As and Sb in the stabilized contaminated soil samples decreased from 4.5 - 9.2 % to 1.5-2.5 % and from 2.2 - 5.8 % to 1.1-1.5 %, respectively. The mechanisms controlling the leaching behaviors of As and Sb included wash-off and diffusion and they were changed with the leaching interval. The mean D^obs of As and Sb released from stabilized contaminated soil specimen were 3.46 × 10^-12 and 2.99 × 10^-13 cm² s^-1, in the which were two orders of magnitude lower than that of untreated contaminated soil specimen. The mean LX of stabilized contaminated soil specimen for As and Sb releases were 11.40 and 12.83, respectively, indicating that the stabilized contaminated soil was acceptable for "controlled utilization".

Reduction, stabilization, and solidification of Cr(VI) in contaminated soils with a sustainable by-product-based binder

This study evaluated the use of a sustainable GFD binder for the stabilization/solidification (S/S) of chromium VI (Cr(VI))-contaminated soil. The GFD binder was composed of ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS), fly ash and desulfurization ash, named after the initials of the three materials. The effects of curing time and binder dosage on soil unconfined compressive strength (UCS), Cr leachability, soil pH, and reduction ratio of Cr (VI) were tested. The immobilization mechanisms of Cr(VI) in contaminated soil were further explored using X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and sequential extraction procedure (SEP). The results showed that the UCS and pH of the soil increased substantially after the GFD binder was added. After 28 days of curing with a 20% binder dosage, the leached total Cr concentration decreased from 34.4 mg/L in the contaminated soil to 1.44 mg/L in the treated soil, and the leached Cr(VI) concentration decreased from 28.0 mg/L to 0.45 mg/L. A Cr(VI) reduction ratio of 96.2% was achieved, indicating the strong reducibility of GGBFS. XRD revealed that the main hydration products of the GFD binder were hydrated calcium silicate (C-S-H) and ettringite. SEM results showed that the formation of hydration products and Cr-bearing precipitates filled the soil pores, resulting in a dense soil structure. The SEP results demonstrated that the levels of the unstable fraction F1 decreased considerably, and that the levels of the stable fractions F3 and F5 increased after treatment. Encapsulation by C-S-H, reduction by sulfides, adsorption of C-S-H, and precipitation of Cr-bearing hydroxides were the main mechanisms involved in Cr immobilization using the GFD binder.

Efficient remediation of heavily As(III)-contaminated soil using a pre-oxidation and stabilization/solidification technique

The high mobility of As(III) makes it difficult to remediate heavily As(III)-contaminated soil. A novel remediation technique that combines pre-oxidation and stabilization/solidification (PO + S/S) is proposed in this study to remediate heavily As(III)-contaminated soil. After oxidizing As(III) in the contaminated soil using Fenton's reagent, FeCl₃·6H₂O was used as a chemical stabilizing agent to reduce the toxicity and mobility of As. Finally, Portland cement (PC) was used for solidification. The effects and mechanisms of the proposed technique were studied using unconfined compressive strength tests, leaching tests, sequential extraction procedure (SEP), and a series of spectroscopic/microscopic investigations. The experimental results showed that the addition of FeCl₃·6H₂O increased the strength of the curing body because the hydration degree of PC and pore structure were improved. Portland cement can increase the pH of the curing body. At a 1:1 Fe to As molar ratio and a 15 wt% PC dosage, the leached As concentration decreased to 3.25 mg L^-1, and the remediation efficiency reached 99.54%. The SEP results showed that the PO + S/S treatment converted As into more stable phases and effectively reduced the potential mobile phase risk. The majority of As was bound to hydrated iron oxides; however, the increased pH affected the Fe-As interactions and prompted the release of As from the surface of the hydrated iron oxides. Spectroscopic/microscopic investigations indicated that the PO + S/S treatment converted As(III) to less toxic and less mobile As(V) and then immobilized by the encapsulation of calcium silicate hydrate and ion exchange of ettringite. This study provides a scientific basis and theoretical support for the effective remediation of heavily As(III)-contaminated soil.

Hydrogeochemical Processes and Potential Exposure Risk of Arsenic-Rich Groundwater from Huaihe River Plain, China

Arsenic poses a danger to environmental health, and arsenic-rich groundwater is a key exposure risk for humans. The distribution, migration, and enrichment of arsenic in groundwater is an important environmental and public health problem. Currently, the Huaihe River Basin is identified as a region of arsenic-rich groundwater in China. This study aims to assess arsenic-rich groundwater potential pollution risk, analyze the hydrogeochemical processes, and trace the ion source based on an analysis of groundwater hydrogeochemical data. The results show that arsenic is the main inorganic chemical substances affecting the water quality in the study area, which presents a high exposure risk for public health. The arsenic concentration of groundwater was f 5.75 ± 5.42 μg/L, and 23% of the considered samples exceeded the drinking water standards of the World Health Organization. The groundwater in the study area underwent evaporation, halite dissolution, and ion exchange processes. The total alkalinity (HCO3−) of the arsenic-rich groundwater mainly ranged between 400–700 mg/L, and the chemical type was mainly of HCO3-Na. In an alkaline environment, the oxidative dissolution and reductive dissolution of arsenic bearing minerals might be the formation mechanism of arsenic-rich groundwater.

Treatment of municipal solid waste incineration fly ash: State-of-the-art technologies and future perspectives

Municipal solid waste incineration (MSWI) fly ash is considered as a hazardous waste that requires specific treatment before disposal. The principal treatments encompass thermal treatment, stabilization/solidification, and resource recovery. To maximize environmental, social, and economic benefits, the development of low-carbon and sustainable treatment technologies for MSWI fly ash has attracted extensive interests in recent years. This paper critically reviewed the state-of-the-art treatment technologies and novel resource utilization approaches for the MSWI fly ash. Innovative technologies and future perspectives of MSWI fly ash management were highlighted. Moreover, the latest understanding of immobilization mechanisms and the use of advanced characterization technologies were elaborated to foster future design of treatment technologies and the actualization of sustainable management for MSWI fly ash.

Effects of low-alkalinity binders on stabilization/solidification of geogenic As-containing soils: Spectroscopic investigation and leaching tests

The low-alkalinity stabilization/solidification (S/S) treatment of the soil containing high concentrations of geogenic As by physical encapsulation is considered as a proper management before land development; however, the choice of an effective binder and the leaching potential of As remain uncertain. In this study, the influence of S/S binders (cement blended with fuel ash (FA), furnace bottom ash (FBA), or ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS)) on the speciation and leaching characteristics of geogenic As was studied. The results of X-ray diffractometer (XRD) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) showed the reduced amount of calcium silicate hydrate phase and the decrease in oxidation state of As(V)-O on the surface of Fe(III) oxides/hydroxides in the low-alkalinity S/S treated soils. This might be due to the binder incorporation and change in pH conditions, which slightly affected the As-Fe interaction and increased the non-specifically sorbed species of As. Therefore, the S/S treatment increased the leachability and bioaccessibility of geogenic As to varying degree but decreased the phyto-extractable As. The S/S treatment by cement incorporating 25% of class C fly ash (O4C1) could achieve comparable or better performance, while reducing the risk assessment code (RAC) to a greater extent compared to that of using cement only. This study illustrates the effectiveness and limitations of low-alkalinity binders (e.g., O4C1) for geogenic As immobilization and encapsulation, which provides a new insight for determining the appropriate S/S binder in soil remediation.