210Po and 210Pb bioaccumulation and possible related dose assessment in parasol mushroom (Macrolepiota procera)

On the radiotoxic 210Po in coffee beans worldwide and the impact of roasting and brewing on its extraction into beverages: from the experiments to 210Po content prediction

We determined radiotoxic 210Po in roasted coffee beans from different regions worldwide, the beverages, and tried to create the prediction model of 210Po content based on its growth location. Additionally, the experiments on 210Po losses and extraction were performed to describe the actual exposure to 210Po. 210Po concentrations in coffee beans and brews tuned out low (maximally of 0.20 Bq∙kg-1 and 2.31 Bq∙L-1, respectively). We assessed the impact of the roasting process on 210Po content and its losses at a maximum of 56.7%. During infusion experiments, we estimated the extraction of 210Po to the coffee brew at a maximum of 40.6%. The amount of 210Po in the coffee brew depended on the infusion style and water type. We calculated the effective radiation doses from the coffee drink ingestion. Coffee drinking does not contribute significantly to the annual effective radiation dose worldwide.

Possibilities of Using Macrolepiota procera in the Production of Prohealth Food and in Medicine

Parasol mushroom (Macrolepiota procera) is a fungus that is often included in the menu of people looking for replacements for meat products and at the same time appreciating mushrooms. Its fruiting bodies are known for their delicate flavor and aroma. The aim of the publication was to analyze the latest information (mainly from 2015 to 2021) on the chemical composition of the M. procera fruiting bodies and their antioxidant properties. The data on other health-promoting properties and the possibilities of using these mushrooms in medicine were also compiled and summarized, taking into account their antibacterial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, regulatory, antidepressant, and anticancer effects. Moreover, the influence of various forms of processing and conservation of raw mushroom on its health-promoting properties was discussed. The possibilities of controlling the quality of both the raw material and the prepared dishes were also discussed. Such an opportunity is offered by the possibility of modifying the growing conditions, in particular, the appropriate selection of the substrate for mushroom cultivation and the deliberate enrichment of its composition with the selected substances, which will then be incorporated into the fungus organism.

On the occurrence, origin, and intake of the nuclides, 210Po and 210Pb, in sclerotia of Wolfiporia cocos collected in China

The dried sclerotium of the fungus Wolfiporia cocos is edible and has medicinal value. This study aimed to understand the accumulation of radioactivity arising from the alpha ²¹⁰Po, and beta-emitting ²¹⁰Pb, in the sclerotium's shell and core and assess a potential effective dose for consumers. Sclerotia were collected in the wild and from cultivars in China's Anhui and Yunnan provinces. The mean values of ²¹⁰Po activity concentration levels were 0.36 Bq kg^-1 dry weight in the core and 12.0 Bq kg^-1 dw in the shell; ²¹⁰Pb activities were 0.43 and 9.84 Bq kg^-1 dw, respectively. The potential effective radiation doses from core layers (as a major raw material of the sclerotium) ranged from 0.13 to 3.43 µSv kg^-1 dw from ²¹⁰Po decay and from 0.11 to 1.52 µSv kg^-1 dw from ²¹⁰Pb decay. Corresponding values for shell ranged from 0.80 to 42.4 for ²¹⁰Po and from 0.53 to 13.6 µSv kg^-1 dw for ²¹⁰Pb. In general, the intake of W. cocos sclerotia varies between consumers, but this would not significantly change the effective radiation doses from ²¹⁰Po and ²¹⁰Pb isotopes. The consumption thus appears to be safe from a radiological protection point of view.

Sources of Polonium 210Po and Radio-Lead 210Pb in Human Body in Poland

This article contains and discusses the results of research on the source of polonium 210Po and radio-lead 210Pb in the human body of adults living in Poland. An adult inhabitant of Poland receives an effective annual radiation dose of 309 µSv from inhalation and absorption of 210Po and 210Pb. The main sources of both radionuclides in the body is cigarette and marijuana smoking. In terms of food, the consumption of fish, cereals, vegetables and fruit as well as mushrooms have the largest contribution to annual dose. This study highlights the importance of cigarette smoking and the growing importance of marijuana hash smoking as the main source of 210Po and 210Pb for adults living in Poland. The calculated dose that results from the decay of both radionuclides in body is 1/10 of the annual radiation dose received by a Polish inhabitant from natural sources (2.8 mSv) and is almost five times lower than the dose resulting from the inhalation of 222Rn.

210Po and 210Pb in King Bolete (Boletus edulis) and Related Mushroom Species: Estimated Effective Radiation Dose and Geospatial Distribution in Central and Eastern Europe

²¹⁰Po and ²¹⁰Pb occur naturally and are the most radiotoxic isotopes of the uranium (U) decay chain. Samples of Boletus edulis and related mushroom species, including B. pinophilus, B. reticulatus, B. luridus and B. impolitus, collected from Poland and Belarus were investigated for the activity concentrations of these isotopes and also for their potential health risk through adult human consumption. The results showed that spatially, the occurrence of ²¹⁰Po and ²¹⁰Po was heterogeneous, with activities varying from 0.91 to 4.47 Bq∙kg⁻¹ dry biomass and from 0.82 to 5.82 Bq∙kg⁻¹ db, respectively. Caps and stipes of the fruiting bodies showed similar levels of contamination. Consumption of boletes foraged in Poland could result in exposure to a combined radiation dose of 10 µSv∙kg⁻¹ db from both isotopes. This dose is not significant compared to the total annual effective radiation dose of ²¹⁰Po and ²¹⁰Pb (54–471 µSv∙kg⁻¹) from all sources, suggesting that these mushrooms are comparatively safe for human consumption.

Occurrence, behavior, and human exposure and health risks of potentially toxic elements in edible mushrooms with focus on Africa

Understanding the occurrence, behavior, and fate of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) in the substrate-mushroom-human nexus is critical for assessing and mitigating their human health risks. In this review, we (1) summarized the nature, sources, and biogeochemical behavior of PTEs in the substrate-mushroom systems; (2) discussed the occurrence, exposure, and human health risks of PTEs in mushrooms with emphasis on African geological hotspots such as metalliferous and highly mineralized substrates; (3) developed a 10-step conceptual framework for identifying, assessing, and mitigating the human health risks of PTEs in mushrooms, and highlight future directions. High human exposure risks potentially exist in Africa due to the following: (1) widespread consumption of mushrooms from various metalliferrous and highly mineralized substrates such as serpentines and mine waste dumps, (2) inadequate and poorly enforced environmental health and food safety regulations and policies, (3) limited environmental and human health monitoring data, and (4) potential synergistic interactions among PTEs in mushrooms and human health stressors such as a high burden of human diseases and infections. Although the human health effects of individual PTEs are well known, scientific evidence linking human health risk to PTEs in mushrooms remains weak. A framework for risk assessment and mitigation, and future research directions are recommended.

A Review of the Occurrence of Alpha-Emitting Radionuclides in Wild Mushrooms

Alpha-emitting radioisotopes are the most toxic among all radionuclides. In particular, medium to long-lived isotopes of the heavier metals are of the greatest concern to human health and radiological safety. This review focuses on the most common alpha-emitting radionuclides of natural and anthropogenic origin in wild mushrooms from around the world. Mushrooms bio-accumulate a range of mineral ionic constituents and radioactive elements to different extents, and are therefore considered as suitable bio-indicators of environmental pollution. The available literature indicates that the natural radionuclide 210Po is accumulated at the highest levels (up to 22 kBq/kg dry weight (dw) in wild mushrooms from Finland), while among synthetic nuclides, the highest levels of up to 53.8 Bq/kg dw of 239+240Pu were reported in Ukrainian mushrooms. The capacity to retain the activity of individual nuclides varies between mushrooms, which is of particular interest for edible species that are consumed either locally or, in some cases, also traded on an international scale. The effective radiation dose from the ingestion of this food can reportedly range from 0.033 µSv/kg dw to 26.8 mSv/kg and varies depending on the country. Following pollution events, such consumption may expose consumers to highly radiotoxic decay particles produced by alpha emitters.

Bolete mushroom Boletus bainiugan from Yunnan as a reflection of the geographical distribution of 210Po, 210Pb and uranium (234U, 235U, 238U) radionuclides, their intake rates and effective exposure doses

This pioneering study aimed to determine the activity concentrations of ²¹⁰Po, ²¹⁰Pb and uranium (²³⁴U, ²³⁵U, ²³⁸U) radionuclides in fruit bodies of wild bolete Boletus bainiugan Dentinger and to estimate its edible safety, which may give scientific evidence for the consumption of this species. The analyses were performed using alpha spectrometer after digestion, exchange resins separation and deposition. Measurement data were analysed and interpolation maps reflecting ²¹⁰Po, ²¹⁰Pb and uranium (²³⁴U, ²³⁵U, ²³⁸U) geographical distribution in Yunnan province (China) were presented. In addition, from the perspective of food safety, the possible related effective radiation dose to mushrooms consumers were estimated. The results indicated that ²¹⁰Po, ²¹⁰Pb and uranium (²³⁴U, ²³⁵U, ²³⁸U) radionuclides contents in B. bainiugan were significantly different with respect to geographical distribution, and their possible intake in a part of the region was considerably higher. A very interesting observation was done according to the values of ²³⁵U/²³⁸U activity ratio indicating the occurrence of uranium faction from the global fallout of nuclear weapon tests.

Uranium (234U, 238U) and thorium (230Th, 232Th) in mushrooms of genus Leccinum and Leccinellum and the potential effective ionizing radiation dose assessment for human

Evaluated has been bioconcentration potential by fungi and risk to human consumers from exposure to natural long-lived radioactive uranium (²³⁴U, ²³⁸U) and thorium (²³⁰Th, ²³²Th) sequestered in stems, caps and the whole fruiting bodies by mushrooms of the genus Leccinum and Leccinellum. Edible species in the study were collected from boreal forests in the northern regions of Poland and investigated: red-capped scaber (Leccinum aurantiacum), orange oak bolete (Leccinum aurantiacum var. quercinum), foxy bolete (Leccinum vulpinum), slate bolete (Leccinum aurantiacum var. duriusculum) and hazel bolete (Leccinellum pseudoscabrum). The study showed the species accumulated uranium (²³⁴U, ²³⁸U) and thorium (^230Th, ²³²Th) form soil to some degree but the calculated values of the bioconcentration factor were below 1. The evaluation showed that Leccinum and Leccinellum mushrooms can contribute to annual effective radiation dose maximally at about 0.9 μSv. Hence, consumption of these mushrooms might increase the annual effective ionizing radiation dose received by a human, while the exposure is considered low from the toxicological point of view even if eaten at elevated amounts.

Radiotoxic 210Po and 210Pb in uncooked and cooked Boletaceae mushrooms from Yunnan (China) including intake rates and effective exposure doses

The article presents results of a study on the radioactivity and exposure from a highly toxic alpha-radiation emitter polonium ²¹⁰Po, and beta emitter lead ²¹⁰Pb in several species of Boletaceae mushrooms and stir-fried mushroom meals from China. Edible mushrooms can efficiently concentrate some elements in flesh but little is known on highly toxic alpha- and beta emitters. In this study, the absolute values of radioactivity (Bq·kg^-1 dry weight) for ²¹⁰Po were in the range 2.0 ± 2.0 to 308 ± 9 in fresh species and 22.1 ± 1.2 to 142 ± 4 in a ready to eat meals, and for ²¹⁰Pb were 3.6 ± 0.5 to 51.8 ± 2.9 and 3.0 ± 0.14 to 9.6 ± 0.5, respectively. The studied batches of a corresponding species of mushrooms - raw and cooked - were not equivalent regarding the homogeneity of the composition. However the raw mushrooms (ingredient for any cooking), showed greater radioactivity in relation to stir-fried meals, and that can imply on a partial loss of nuclides. A daily portion of 100 g of stir-fried mushrooms could provide ²¹⁰Po and ²¹⁰Pb radiation in the range 0.2-2.1 μSv and 0.02-0.06 μSv, respectively. Assessed, the cumulative doses of exposure to ²¹⁰Po were 1.4-14 μSv in a week period and 75-722 μSv at annual timescale, and of ²¹⁰Pb amounted at 0.15-0.46 μSv and 8.3-24 μSv, respectively. The ²¹⁰Po can be possibly considered as a major source of ionizing radiation activity for persons with high mushroom meals consumption in SW Asia, while the number of available data is limited.

The level of 210Pb extraction efficiency in Polish herbal teas and the possible effective dose to consumers

The article presents the results of a study on the level of ²¹⁰Pb efficiency extraction in Polish herbal teas as a possible additional source of this radioactive isotope in the human diet. The twelve most popular herbal teas available in Poland and their infusions in filtered and tap water were analyzed as well as ²¹⁰Pb activity concentrations and effective doses (radiation) were calculated. The highest activity concentration of ²¹⁰Pb in dried plants was determined in cistus - 35.5 Bq kg^-1dry wt, while the lowest was in milk thistle - 3.25 Bq kg^-1dry wt what gives respectively for cistus 46.1 ± 0.7 and 6.50 ± 0.29 mBq for milk thistle per one tea bag. The extraction efficiencies in the filtered water oscillated from 5.1 ± 0.5 for milk thistle to 27.3 ± 0.8% for cistus, while for the tap water they ranged from 7.3 ± 0.6% for lime to 33.3 ± 2.2% for white mulberry. Based on the study, it was found that the analyzed herbal tea consumption would give a small portion of the annual effective dose of ²¹⁰Pb received in Poland - the annual effective radiation dose of ²¹⁰Pb taken with herbal tea infusions (one glass daily) was calculated from 0.08 ± 0.01 to 3.17 ± 0.08 µSv.

On uranium 234U and 238U radionuclides in calcium and magnesium supplements and the potential effective radiation dose assessment to the consumers

In this survey the concentrations of the radioactive nuclides uranium ²³⁴U and ²³⁸U were determined in the most popular calcium and magnesium supplements for adults in Poland. It was also investigated whether the supplements contain uranium isotopes and could be a potential source in the human diet and have an influence on the value of effective radiation doses to the consumers. The analyzed calcium and magnesium pharmaceuticals contained organic or inorganic compounds, several of natural origin as mussel's shells, fish extracts, or sedimentary rocks. As results showed, ²³⁴U and ²³⁸U concentrations in natural origin calcium and magnesium supplements were significantly higher than in other, synthetic ones. The highest ²³⁴U and ²³⁸U activity concentrations were determined in tablets from mussel's shells. The radiochemical hazard was assessed and the highest annual radiation dose was found in ²³⁴U and ²³⁸U present in supplements produced from shells or dolomite rock.

BASELINE STUDIES ON RADIONUCLIDE CONCENTRATION IN FOOD MATERIALS AND ESTIMATION OF THE COMMITTED RADIATION DOSE AROUND THE PHOSPHATE INDUSTRIAL AREA OF SOUTH TUNISIA

The activity concentration of natural and anthropogenic radionuclides was determined in different vegetable samples, and foods derived from animal origin, from different locations in the four cities of Southern Tunisia, where large-scale phosphate industries are operating. The aim of the studies was to establish a baseline database on radionuclide concentration in food materials and to evaluate the radiation dose to the general population due to its ingestion through the food chain. The activity concentrations of 40K, 210Pb, 226Ra, 228Ra and 137Cs was determined by gamma spectrometry using a HPGe detector, and from the measured activity concentrations, the doses were estimated using the dose coefficients given by the ICRP. The dose due to intake of radionuclides through mineral water was also determined. The total annual effective doses were found to be 2.2, 1.4, and 0.7 mSv y-1 for 1 y, 5-15 y and adult (>17 y) age groups, respectively. Among the radionuclides studied, 210Po was the highest contributor to the total dose, followed by 210Pb.

Isotopes of 210Po and 210Pb in Hazel bolete (Leccinellum pseudoscabrum) - bioconcentration, distribution and related dose assessment

The hazel bolete Leccinellum pseudoscabrum (Kallenb.) Mikšík 2017 specimens and beneath soil layer (0-10 cm) have been examined on the occasion of ²¹⁰Po and ²¹⁰Pb activity concentrations, the nuclide bioaccumulation potential by species and distribution in fruit bodies. Mushrooms and forest soils came from six geographically distant locations in the northern and central parts of Poland. The threat to humans from ²¹⁰Po and ²¹⁰Pb contained in mushrooms has been also assessed. The absolute values of the ²¹⁰Po radioactivity, respectively, in caps and stems of fruit bodies were in the range 0.74 ± 0.06-8.59 ± 0.36 Bq kg^-1 dry biomass and from 0.81 ± 0.06-8.23 ± 0.37 Bq kg^-1 dry biomass, while the values of the ²¹⁰Pb radioactivity in caps and stems were in the range 0.61 ± 0.04-6.33 ± 0.22 Bq kg^-1 dry biomass and 0.83 ± 0.04-4.59 ± 0.24 Bq kg^-1 dry biomass, respectively. A potential related effective dose assessment showed that mushrooms L. pseudoscabrum can contribute at 0.89-10.3 μSv kg^-1 db from ²¹⁰Po decay and 0.42-4.37 μSv kg^-1 db from ²¹⁰Pb decay.

210Po and 210Pb in forest mushrooms of genus Leccinum and topsoil from northern Poland and its contribution to the radiation dose

Wild growing mushrooms are traditional food items for man and also an important source of nutrients for small and big wildlife. Nevertheless, they can be species - specifically vulnerable for contamination with heavy metals and radionuclides. We studied a less known phenomenon of accumulation of highly toxic, the alpha-radiation emitter such as ²¹⁰Po and the beta emitter ²¹⁰Pb by three Leccinum mushrooms: orange oak bolete L. aurantiacum (Bull.) Gray (previous name Leccinum aurantiacum var. quercinum Pilát), foxy bolete L. vulpinum Watling and slate bolete L. duriusculum (Schulzer ex Kalchbr.) Singer. Fungal and soil materials were collected from areas of a different geochemical composition in the northern regions of Poland. In parallel evaluated was the risk to human consumer due to possible intake of ²¹⁰Po and ²¹⁰Pb with a mushroom meal. Results showed a heterogeneous distribution of ²¹⁰Po and ²¹⁰Pb activity concentrations within caps and stipes of fruiting bodies. Overall activity concentration for whole dried fungi material ranged from 0.59 ± 0.38 to 3.2 ± 0.2 Bq ²¹⁰Po kg^-1 and from 0.45 ± 0.04 to 3.1 ± 0.2 Bq ²¹⁰Pb kg^-1. Evaluation showed that Leccinum mushrooms consumed by locals in typical quantity of 0.5 kg (dry biomass) can contribute into annual effective radiation dose at 0.90-3.81 μSv from ²¹⁰Po decay and 0.31-2.14 μSv from ²¹⁰Pb decay, which is a small portion of the annual effective radiation dose of ²¹⁰Po and ²¹⁰Pb for human inhabiting the northern regions of Poland.