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Navina BK, Velmurugan NK, Senthil Kumar P, Rangasamy G, Palanivelu J, Thamarai P, Vickram AS, Saravanan A, Shakoor A. Fungal bioremediation approaches for the removal of toxic pollutants: Mechanistic understanding for biorefinery applications. CHEMOSPHERE 2024; 350:141123. [PMID: 38185426 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2024.141123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2023] [Revised: 10/30/2023] [Accepted: 01/03/2024] [Indexed: 01/09/2024]
Abstract
Pollution is a global menace that poses harmful effects on all the living ecosystems and to the Earth. As years pass by, the available and the looming rate of pollutants increases at a faster rate. Although many treatments and processing strategies are waged for treating such pollutants, the by-products and the wastes or drain off generated by these treatments further engages in the emission of hazardous waste. Innovative and long-lasting solutions are required to address the urgent global issue of hazardous pollutant remediation from contaminated environments. Myco-remediation is a top-down green and eco-friendly tool for pollution management. It is a cost-effective and safer practice of converting pernicious substances into non-toxic forms by the use of fungi. But these pollutants can be transformed into useable products along with multiple benefits for the environment such as sequestration of carbon emissions and also to generate high valuable bioactive materials that fits as a sustainable economic model. The current study has examined the possible applications of fungi in biorefineries and their critical role in the transformation and detoxification of pollutants. The paper offers important insights into using fungal bioremediation for both economically and environmentally sound solutions in the domain of biorefinery applications by combining recent research findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bala Krishnan Navina
- Department of Biotechnology, Vel Tech Rangarajan Dr. Sagunthala R&D Institute of Science and Technology, Chennai, 600062, India
| | - Nandha Kumar Velmurugan
- Department of Biotechnology, Vel Tech Rangarajan Dr. Sagunthala R&D Institute of Science and Technology, Chennai, 600062, India
| | - P Senthil Kumar
- Centre for Pollution Control and Environmental Engineering, School of Engineering and Technology, Pondicherry University, Kalapet, Puducherry, 605014, India.
| | - Gayathri Rangasamy
- School of Engineering, Lebanese American University, Byblos, Lebanon; University Centre for Research and Development & Department of Civil Engineering, Chandigarh University, Gharuan, Mohali, Punjab, 140413, India
| | - Jeyanthi Palanivelu
- Department of Biotechnology, Vel Tech Rangarajan Dr. Sagunthala R&D Institute of Science and Technology, Chennai, 600062, India
| | - P Thamarai
- Department of Biotechnology, Saveetha School of Engineering, SIMATS, Chennai, 602105, India
| | - A S Vickram
- Department of Biotechnology, Saveetha School of Engineering, SIMATS, Chennai, 602105, India
| | - A Saravanan
- Department of Biotechnology, Saveetha School of Engineering, SIMATS, Chennai, 602105, India
| | - Awais Shakoor
- Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment, West Sydney University, Penrith, NSW, 2751, Australia
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Sharma P, Bano A, Yadav S, Singh SP. Biocatalytic Degradation of Emerging Micropollutants. Top Catal 2023. [DOI: 10.1007/s11244-023-01790-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/08/2023]
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Bokade P, Bajaj A. Molecular advances in mycoremediation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: Exploring fungal bacterial interactions. J Basic Microbiol 2023; 63:239-256. [PMID: 36670077 DOI: 10.1002/jobm.202200499] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2022] [Revised: 11/15/2022] [Accepted: 12/18/2022] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are ubiquitous high global concern environmental pollutants and tend to bioaccumulate due to hydrophobic properties. These xenobiotics, having variable concentrations along different matrices, gradually undergo various physical, chemical, and biological transformation processes. Myco-remediation aids accelerated degradation by effectively transforming complex ring structures to oxidized/hydroxylated intermediates, which can further funnel to bacterial degradation pathways. Exploitation of such complementing fungal-bacterial enzymatic activity can overcome certain limitations of incomplete bioremediation process. Furthermore, high-throughput molecular methods can be employed to unveil community structure, taxon abundance, coexisting community interactions, and metabolic pathways under stressed conditions. The present review critically discusses the role of different fungal phyla in PAHs biotransformation and application of fungal-bacterial cocultures for enhanced mineralization. Moreover, recent advances in bioassays for PAH residue detection, monitoring, developing xenobiotics stress-tolerant strains, and application of fungal catabolic enzymes are highlighted. Application of next-generation sequencing methods to reveal complex ecological networks based on microbial community interactions and data analysis bias in performing such studies is further discussed in detail. Conclusively, the review underscores the application of mixed-culture approach by critically highlighting in situ fungal-bacterial community nexus and its role in complete mineralization of PAHs for the management of contaminated sites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Priyanka Bokade
- Environmental Biotechnology and Genomics Division, CSIR-National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (CSIR-NEERI), Nagpur, India.,Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, India
| | - Abhay Bajaj
- Environmental Biotechnology and Genomics Division, CSIR-National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (CSIR-NEERI), Nagpur, India.,Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, India
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Fungal bioproducts for petroleum hydrocarbons and toxic metals remediation: recent advances and emerging technologies. Bioprocess Biosyst Eng 2023; 46:393-428. [PMID: 35943595 DOI: 10.1007/s00449-022-02763-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2022] [Accepted: 07/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Petroleum hydrocarbons and toxic metals are sources of environmental contamination and are harmful to all ecosystems. Fungi have metabolic and morphological plasticity that turn them into potential prototypes for technological development in biological remediation of these contaminants due to their ability to interact with a specific contaminant and/or produced metabolites. Although fungal bioinoculants producing enzymes, biosurfactants, polymers, pigments and organic acids have potential to be protagonists in mycoremediation of hydrocarbons and toxic metals, they can still be only adjuvants together with bacteria, microalgae, plants or animals in such processes. However, the sudden accelerated development of emerging technologies related to the use of potential fungal bioproducts such as bioinoculants, enzymes and biosurfactants in the remediation of these contaminants, has boosted fungal bioprocesses to achieve higher performance and possible real application. In this review, we explore scientific and technological advances in bioprocesses related to the production and/or application of these potential fungal bioproducts when used in remediation of hydrocarbons and toxic metals from an integral perspective of biotechnological process development. In turn, it sheds light to overcome existing technological limitations or enable new experimental designs in the remediation of these and other emerging contaminants.
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Zhang X, Wang X, Li Y, Ning G, Zhang Q, Zhang X, Zheng W, Yang Z. Differences in adsorption, transmembrane transport and degradation of pyrene and benzo[a]pyrene by Bacillus sp. strain M1. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2022; 248:114328. [PMID: 36436257 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2022.114328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2022] [Revised: 11/02/2022] [Accepted: 11/21/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
In a previous study our group identified Bacillus sp. strain M1 as an efficient decomposer of high molecular weight-polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (HMW-PAHs). Interestingly, its removal efficiency for benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) was nearly double that of pyrene (Pyr), which was the reverse of what is reported for most other species. Here we compared the differential steps of biosorption, transmembrane transport and biodegradation of Pyr and BaP by strain M1 in order to assist in targeted selection of dominant strains and their degradation efficiency in the remediation of these two HMW-PAHs. The overall biosorption efficiency for BaP was 19% higher than that for Pyr, and the time needed to reach BaP peak adsorption efficiency was 4 days shorter than for Pyr. Transmembrane transport of the PAHs was compared in presence of sodium azide which inhibits ATP synthesis and metabolism. This indicated that both Pyr and BaP entered the cells by the same means of passive transport. Biodegradation of Pyr and BaP did not differ in the early stage of culture, but around days 5-7, the biodegradation efficiency of BaP was significantly (30-61%) higher than that of Pyr. Key enzymes involved in these processes were identified and their activity differed, with intracellular gentisate 1,2-dioxygenase and extracellular polyphenol oxidase as likely candidates to be involved in BaP degradation, while intracellular catechol-1,2- dioxygenase and salicylate hydroxylase are more likely involved in Pyr degradation. These results provide new insights for sustainable environmental remediation of pyrene and benzo(a)pyrene by these bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoxue Zhang
- College of Resource and Environmental Sciences, Agricultural University of Hebei, Baoding 0710001, Hebei Province, PR China; Key Laboratory for Farmland Eco-Environment, Baoding 0710001, Hebei Province, PR China
| | - Xiaomin Wang
- College of Resource and Environmental Sciences, Agricultural University of Hebei, Baoding 0710001, Hebei Province, PR China; Key Laboratory for Farmland Eco-Environment, Baoding 0710001, Hebei Province, PR China
| | - Yan Li
- College of Resource and Environmental Sciences, Agricultural University of Hebei, Baoding 0710001, Hebei Province, PR China; Key Laboratory for Farmland Eco-Environment, Baoding 0710001, Hebei Province, PR China
| | - Guohui Ning
- College of Resource and Environmental Sciences, Agricultural University of Hebei, Baoding 0710001, Hebei Province, PR China; Key Laboratory for Farmland Eco-Environment, Baoding 0710001, Hebei Province, PR China
| | - Qian Zhang
- College of Resource and Environmental Sciences, Agricultural University of Hebei, Baoding 0710001, Hebei Province, PR China; Key Laboratory for Farmland Eco-Environment, Baoding 0710001, Hebei Province, PR China
| | - Xuena Zhang
- College of Resource and Environmental Sciences, Agricultural University of Hebei, Baoding 0710001, Hebei Province, PR China; Key Laboratory for Farmland Eco-Environment, Baoding 0710001, Hebei Province, PR China
| | - Wei Zheng
- College of Resource and Environmental Sciences, Agricultural University of Hebei, Baoding 0710001, Hebei Province, PR China; Key Laboratory for Farmland Eco-Environment, Baoding 0710001, Hebei Province, PR China; State Key Laboratory of North China Crop Improvement and Regulation, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding 071001, Hebei, PR China
| | - Zhixin Yang
- College of Resource and Environmental Sciences, Agricultural University of Hebei, Baoding 0710001, Hebei Province, PR China; Key Laboratory for Farmland Eco-Environment, Baoding 0710001, Hebei Province, PR China; State Key Laboratory of North China Crop Improvement and Regulation, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding 071001, Hebei, PR China.
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Gaur VK, Gautam K, Sharma P, Gupta P, Dwivedi S, Srivastava JK, Varjani S, Ngo HH, Kim SH, Chang JS, Bui XT, Taherzadeh MJ, Parra-Saldívar R. Sustainable strategies for combating hydrocarbon pollution: Special emphasis on mobil oil bioremediation. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 832:155083. [PMID: 35395309 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.155083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2022] [Revised: 04/01/2022] [Accepted: 04/03/2022] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
The global rise in industrialization and vehicularization has led to the increasing trend in the use of different crude oil types. Among these mobil oil has major application in automobiles and different machines. The combustion of mobil oil renders a non-usable form that ultimately enters the environment thereby causing problems to environmental health. The aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbon fraction of mobil oil has serious human and environmental health hazards. These components upon interaction with soil affect its fertility and microbial diversity. The recent advancement in the omics approach viz. metagenomics, metatranscriptomics and metaproteomics has led to increased efficiency for the use of microbial based remediation strategy. Additionally, the use of biosurfactants further aids in increasing the bioavailability and thus biodegradation of crude oil constituents. The combination of more than one approach could serve as an effective tool for efficient reduction of oil contamination from diverse ecosystems. To the best of our knowledge only a few publications on mobil oil have been published in the last decade. This systematic review could be extremely useful in designing a micro-bioremediation strategy for aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems contaminated with mobil oil or petroleum hydrocarbons that is both efficient and feasible. The state-of-art information and future research directions have been discussed to address the issue efficiently.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vivek Kumar Gaur
- School of Energy and Chemical Engineering, UNIST, Ulsan 44919, Republic of Korea; Centre for Energy and Environmental Sustainability, Lucknow, India; Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Lucknow Campus, Lucknow, India
| | - Krishna Gautam
- Centre for Energy and Environmental Sustainability, Lucknow, India
| | - Poonam Sharma
- Department of Bioengineering, Integral University, Lucknow, India
| | - Pallavi Gupta
- Bioscience and Biotechnology Department, Banasthali University, Rajasthan, India
| | | | | | - Sunita Varjani
- Gujarat Pollution Control Board, Gandhinagar, Gujarat 382 010, India.
| | - Huu Hao Ngo
- Centre for Technology in Water and Wastewater, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2007, Australia
| | - Sang-Hyoun Kim
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Yonsei University, Seoul 03722, Republic of Korea
| | - Jo-Shu Chang
- Department of Chemical Engineering, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Xuan-Thanh Bui
- Faculty of Environment and Natural Resources, Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology (HCMUT), Ho Chi Minh City 700000, Viet Nam; Key Laboratory of Advanced Waste Treatment Technology, Vietnam National University Ho Chi Minh (VNU-HCM), Linh Trung ward, Thu Duc district, Ho Chi Minh City 700000, Viet Nam
| | | | - Roberto Parra-Saldívar
- Escuela de Ingeniería y Ciencias-Centro de Biotecnología-FEMSA, Tecnológico de Monterrey, Campus Monterrey, Mexico
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Long T, Wan H, Zhang J, Wu J, Liang JX, Zhu C. The High-Effective Catalytic Degradation of Benzo[a]pyrene by Mn-Corrolazine Regulated by Oriented External Electric Field: Insight From DFT Study. Front Chem 2022; 10:884105. [PMID: 35720998 PMCID: PMC9201028 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2022.884105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2022] [Accepted: 05/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The degradation of BaP into hydroxybenzo[a]pyrene by Mn-corrolazine and its regulation by an oriented external electronic field (OEEF) were systematically studied using first-principle calculations. Extensive density function calculations showed that the degradation of BaP into hydroxybenzo[a]pyrene by Mn-corrolazine occurs via a three-step process in the absence of OEEF, in which a more toxic and stable epoxide intermediate is generated. However, upon application of OEEF along the intrinsic Mn-O reaction axis, the degradation of BaP into hydroxybenzo[a]pyrene is greatly simplified. The negative charge on the terminal O atom of Mn-OO corrolazine increases with an increase in the OEEF intensity. As the intensity of the OEEF increases over 0.004 a.u., the negatively charged terminal O atom has the ability to directly abstract the positively charged H atom of BaP and the degradation of BaP into hydroxybenzo[a]pyrene can be completed via a one-step process, avoiding the production of more toxic epoxide intermediates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tairen Long
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Guizhou University, Guiyang, China
| | - Haiyan Wan
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Guizhou University, Guiyang, China
| | | | - Jie Wu
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Guizhou University, Guiyang, China
| | - Jin-Xia Liang
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Guizhou University, Guiyang, China
- *Correspondence: Jin-Xia Liang, ; Chun Zhu,
| | - Chun Zhu
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Guizhou University, Guiyang, China
- *Correspondence: Jin-Xia Liang, ; Chun Zhu,
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Efficiency of Penicillium canescens in Dissipating PAH in Industrial Aged Contaminated Soil Microcosms and Its Impact on Soil Organic Matter and Ecotoxicity. Processes (Basel) 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/pr10030532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/10/2022] Open
Abstract
The filamentous fungus Penicillium canescens, isolated from oil-polluted soil, was evaluated for its ability to dissipate high-molecular-weight polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH). The study was conducted in a microcosm containing 180 g of historical PAH-contaminated soil under non-sterile conditions with two incubation temperatures (14 °C and 18 °C) on a 12-h cycle. The experiment was conducted over 8 months, with four experimental conditions created by varying the volumes of the bulking agent and vegetable oil (olive oil) and the time of addition of these compounds. The PAH dissipation performance of the fungal augmentation treatment was compared with that achieved with a biostimulated soil (bulking agent and vegetable oil) and with the untreated soil as control. The greatest PAH dissipation was obtained with P. canescens bioaugmentation (35.71% ± 1.73), with 13 of the 16 US EPA PAH significantly dissipated, at rates above 18%, and particularly high-molecular-weight PAH, composed of more than three fused aromatic rings. Nematode toxicity tests indicated a significant decrease in the toxicity of soil bioaugmented by this fungus. Fulvic and humic contents were significantly increased by this treatment. All these results suggest that bioaugmentation with P. canescens can be used to restore soils with long-term PAH contamination.
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An insight on microbial degradation of benzo[a]pyrene: current status and advances in research. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 2022; 38:61. [PMID: 35199223 DOI: 10.1007/s11274-022-03250-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2021] [Accepted: 02/11/2022] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) is a high molecular weight polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon produced as a result of incomplete combustion of organic substances. Over the years, the release of BaP in the atmosphere has increased rapidly, risking human lives. BaP can form bonds with DNA leading to the formation of DNA adducts thereby causing cancer. Therefore addressing the problem of its removal from the environment is quite pertinent though it calls for a very cumbersome and tedious process owing to its recalcitrant nature. To resolve such issues many efforts have been made to develop physical and chemical technologies of BaP degradation which have neither been cost-effective nor eco-friendly. Microbial degradation of BaP, on the other hand, has gained much attention due to added advantage of the high level of microbial diversity enabling great potential to degrade the substance without impairing environmental sustainability. Microorganisms produce enzymes like oxygenases, hydrolases and cytochrome P450 that enable BaP degradation. However, microbial degradation of BaP is restricted due to several factors related to its bio-availability and soil properties. Technologies like bio-augmentation and bio-stimulation have served to enhance the degradation rate of BaP. Besides, advanced technologies such as omics and nano-technology have opened new doors for a better future of microbial degradation of BaP and related compounds.
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Baranger C, Pezron I, Lins L, Deleu M, Le Goff A, Fayeulle A. A compartmentalized microsystem helps understanding the uptake of benzo[a]pyrene by fungi during soil bioremediation processes. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 784:147151. [PMID: 33895515 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.147151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2021] [Revised: 04/01/2021] [Accepted: 04/11/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Hydrophobic organic soil contaminants such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) are poorly mobile in the aqueous phase and tend to sorb to the soil matrix, resulting in low bioavailability. Some filamentous fungi are efficient in degrading this kind of pollutants. However, the mechanism of mobilization of hydrophobic compounds by non-motile microorganisms such as filamentous fungi needs investigations to improve pollutant bioavailability and bioremediation efficiency. Usual homogeneous media for microbial growth in the lab are poorly suited to model the soil, which is a compartmentalized and heterogeneous habitat. A microfluidic device was designed to implement a compartmentalization of the fungal inoculum and the source of the pollutant benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) as a deposit of solid crystals in order to gain a further insight into the mechanisms involved in the access to the contaminant and its uptake in soils. Thus in this device, two chambers are connected by an array of parallel microchannels that are wide enough to allow individual hyphae to grow through them. Macro-cultures of Talaromyces helicus in direct contact with BaP have shown its uptake and intracellular storage in lipid bodies despite the low propensity of BaP to cross aqueous phases as shown by simulation. Observations of T. helicus in the microfluidic device through laser scanning confocal microscopy indicate preferential uptake of BaP at a close range and through contact with the cell wall. However faint staining of some hyphae before contact with the deposit also suggests an extracellular transport phenomenon. Macro-culture filtrates analyses have shown that T. helicus releases extracellular non-lipidic surface-active compounds able to lower the surface tension of culture filtrates to 49.4 mN/m. Thus, these results highlight the significance of active mechanisms to reach hydrophobic contaminants before their uptake by filamentous fungi in compartmentalized micro-environments and the potential to improve them through biostimulation approaches for soil mycoremediation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire Baranger
- Université de technologie de Compiègne, ESCOM, TIMR (Integrated Transformations of Renewable Matter), Centre de Recherche Royallieu - CS 60 319 - 60 203 Compiègne Cedex, France
| | - Isabelle Pezron
- Université de technologie de Compiègne, ESCOM, TIMR (Integrated Transformations of Renewable Matter), Centre de Recherche Royallieu - CS 60 319 - 60 203 Compiègne Cedex, France
| | - Laurence Lins
- TERRA Research Center, Laboratory of Molecular Biophysics at Interfaces, SFR Condorcet, Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech, University of Liege, Passage des Déportés, 2, 5030 Gembloux, Belgium
| | - Magali Deleu
- TERRA Research Center, Laboratory of Molecular Biophysics at Interfaces, SFR Condorcet, Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech, University of Liege, Passage des Déportés, 2, 5030 Gembloux, Belgium
| | - Anne Le Goff
- Université de technologie de Compiègne, CNRS, Biomechanics and Bioengineering, Centre de recherche Royallieu - CS 60 319 - 60 203 Compiègne Cedex, France.
| | - Antoine Fayeulle
- Université de technologie de Compiègne, ESCOM, TIMR (Integrated Transformations of Renewable Matter), Centre de Recherche Royallieu - CS 60 319 - 60 203 Compiègne Cedex, France.
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