Insulinoma After Bariatric Surgery: Diagnostic Dilemma and Therapeutic Approaches

An Imbalance of Pathophysiologic Factors in Late Postprandial Hypoglycemia Post Bariatric Surgery: A Narrative Review

With a rise in obesity and more patients opting for bariatric surgery, it becomes crucial to understand associated complications like postprandial hypoglycemia (PPH). After bariatric surgery, significant changes are seen in insulin sensitivity, beta cell function, glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) levels, the gut microbiome, and bile acid metabolism. And in a small subset of patients, exaggerated imbalances in these functional and metabolic processes lead to insulin-glucose mismatch and hypoglycemia. The main treatment for PPH involves dietary modifications. For those that do not respond, medications or surgical interventions are considered to reverse some of the imbalances. We present a few case reports of patients that safely tolerated GLP-1 agonists. However, larger randomized control trials are needed to further characterize PPH and understand its treatment.

Diagnosis and management of post-bariatric surgery hypoglycemia

INTRODUCTION

While bariatric surgery remains the most effective treatment for obesity that allows substantial weight loss with improvement and possibly remission of obesity-associated comorbidities, some postoperative complications may occur. Managing physicians need to be familiar with the common problems to ensure timely and effective management. Of these complications, postoperative hypoglycemia is an increasingly recognized complication of bariatric surgery that remains underreported and underdiagnosed.

AREA COVERED

This article highlights the importance of identifying hypoglycemia in patients with a history of bariatric surgery, reviews pathophysiology and addresses available nutritional, pharmacological and surgical management options. Systemic evaluation including careful history taking, confirmation of hypoglycemia and biochemical assessment is essential to establish accurate diagnosis. Understanding the weight-dependent and weight-independent mechanisms of improved postoperative glycemic control can provide better insight into the causes of the exaggerated responses that lead to postoperative hypoglycemia.

EXPERT OPINION

Management of post-operative hypoglycemia can be challenging and requires a multidisciplinary approach. While dietary modification is the mainstay of treatment for most patients, some patients may benefit from pharmacotherapy (e.g. GLP-1 receptor antagonist); Surgery (e.g. reversal of gastric bypass) is reserved for unresponsive severe cases. Additional research is needed to understand the underlying pathophysiology with a primary aim in optimizing diagnostics and treatment options.

Persistent post-bariatric-surgery hypoglycemia: A long-term follow-up reassessment

BACKGROUND AND AIM

Post-bariatric-surgery hypoglycemia (PBH) is a serious complication of bariatric surgery (BS). In our previous study about three quarters of the patients developed PBH. However long-term follow-up data is lacking to determine whether this condition improves with time. The aim of the current study was to re-assess post-BS patients who participated in our previous study and determine whether there are changes in the frequency and/or severity of hypoglycemic events.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Twenty-four post-BS, post Roux-en-Y gastric-bypass (RYGB = 10), post omega-loop gastric-bypass (OLGB = 9) and post sleeve-gastrectomy (SG = 5) individuals were reevaluated in a follow-up study 34.4 ± 4 months after their previous assessment and 67 ± 17 months since surgery. The evaluation included: a dietitian assessment, a questionnaire, meal-tolerance test (MTT) and a one-week masked continuous glucose monitoring (CGM). Hypoglycemia and severe hypoglycemia were defined by glucose levels ≤54 mg/dl and ≤40 mg/dl, respectively. Thirteen patients reported questionnaire meal-related complaints, mainly non-specific. During MTT, hypoglycemia occurred in 75% of the patients, and severe hypoglycemia in a third, but none was associated with specific complaints. During CGM, 66% of patients developed hypoglycemia and 37% had severe hypoglycemia. We did not observe significant improvements in hypoglycemic events compared to the previous assessment. Despite the high frequency of hypoglycemia, it did not necessitate hospitalizations or lead to death.

CONCLUSIONS

PBH did not resolve within long-term follow-up. Intriguingly, most patient were unaware of these events which can lead to underestimation by the medical staff. Further studies are needed to determine possible long term sequela of repeated hypoglycemia.

Glucose metabolism after bariatric surgery: implications for T2DM remission and hypoglycaemia

Although promising therapeutics are in the pipeline, bariatric surgery (also known as metabolic surgery) remains our most effective strategy for the treatment of obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Of the many available options, Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (RYGB) and vertical sleeve gastrectomy (VSG) are currently the most widely used procedures. RYGB and VSG have very different anatomical restructuring but both surgeries are effective, to varying degrees, at inducing weight loss and T2DM remission. Both weight loss-dependent and weight loss-independent alterations in multiple tissues (such as the intestine, liver, pancreas, adipose tissue and skeletal muscle) yield net improvements in insulin resistance, insulin secretion and insulin-independent glucose metabolism. In a subset of patients, post-bariatric hypoglycaemia can develop months to years after surgery, potentially reflecting the extreme effects of potent glucose reduction after surgery. This Review addresses the effects of bariatric surgery on glucose regulation and the potential mechanisms responsible for both the resolution of T2DM and the induction of hypoglycaemia.

Medical Nutrition Therapy and Other Approaches to Management of Post-bariatric Hypoglycemia: A Team-Based Approach

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

This manuscript provides a review of post-bariatric hypoglycemia (PBH) with a special focus on the role of the registered dietitian-nutritionist (RDN) and medical nutrition therapy (MNT) recommendations as foundational for management.

RECENT FINDINGS

As the number of bariatric surgeries rises yearly, with 256,000 performed in 2019, PBH is an increasingly encountered late complication. Following Roux-en-Y (RYGB) or vertical sleeve gastrectomy (VSG), about 1/3 of patients report symptoms suggestive of at least mild postprandial hypoglycemia, with severe and/or medically confirmed hypoglycemia in 1-10%. Anatomical alterations, changes in GLP1 and other intestinally derived hormones, excessive insulin response, reduced insulin clearance, impaired counterregulatory hormone response to hypoglycemia, and other factors contribute to PBH. MNT is the cornerstone of multidisciplinary treatment, with utilization of personal continuous glucose monitoring to improve safety when possible. While many individuals require pharmacotherapy, there are no currently approved medications for PBH. Increasing awareness and identification of individuals at risk for or with PBH is critical given the potential impact on safety, nutrition, and quality of life. A team-based approach involving the individual, the RDN, and other clinicians is essential in providing ongoing assessment and individualization of MNT in the long-term management of PBH.

Insulinoma after sleeve gastrectomy: A case report

BACKGROUND

Laparoscopic sleeve gastrectomy (LSG) has been proposed as an effective and durable treatment for severe obesity and glucose metabolism disorders, and its prevalence has increased from 5% to 37% since 2008. One common complication after bariatric surgery is a postprandial hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemic state. While rare, insulinomas can cause this state, where symptoms are more common in the fasting state; thus, evaluation of insulin secretion is needed. Until now, there have been no reports of insulinoma after LSG.

CASE SUMMARY

We describe the case of a 43-year-old woman who was referred to the obesity clinic 2 years after LSG was performed. She had symptoms of hypoglycemia predominantly in the fasting state and documented hypoglycemia of less than 30 mg/dL, which are compatible with Whipple’s triad. Initially, dumping syndrome was suspected, but after a second low fasting plasma glucose was documented, a 72-h fasting test was performed that tested positive. Computed tomography and endoscopic ultrasound were performed, identifying the presence of a homogeneous hypoechoic semioval tumoral lesion in the pancreas. The diagnosis was compatible with insulinoma. After laparoscopic enucleation of the insulinoma, the symptoms and hypoglycemia disappeared. The histopathological report described a well-differentiated grade 2 neuroendocrine tumor with positive chromogranin and synaptophysin and Ki67 immunopositivity in 4% of the neoplastic cells.

CONCLUSION

Insulinoma after LSG is a rare condition, and clinicians must be aware of it, especially if the patient has hypoglycemic symptoms during the fasting state.

Metastatic insulinoma presenting after bariatric surgery in a patient diagnosed with MEN1

Insulinomas are uncommon neuroendocrine tumors and metastatic disease is extremely rare. We report a patient with metastatic insulinoma associated with multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 presenting with hypoglycemia following sleeve gastrectomy. Potential causes of hypoglycemia include dumping syndrome, noninsulinoma pancreatogenous hypoglycemia syndrome, and rarely insulinoma. MEN1‐associated insulinomas have a higher recurrence rate.

Postbariatric hypoglycemia: symptom patterns and associated risk factors in the Longitudinal Assessment of Bariatric Surgery study

BACKGROUND

Postbariatric hypoglycemia (PBH) can be a devastating complication for which current therapies are often incompletely effective. More information is needed regarding frequency, incidence, and risk factors for PBH.

OBJECTIVES

To examine hypoglycemia symptoms following Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (RYGB) and laparoscopic adjustable gastric banding (LAGB) and baseline and in-study risk factors.

SETTING

Multicenter, at 10 US hospitals in 6 geographically diverse clinical centers.

METHODS

A prospective, longitudinal cohort study of adults undergoing RYGB or LAGB as part of clinical care between 2006 and 2009 were recruited and followed until January 31, 2015, with baseline and annual postoperative research assessments. We analyzed baseline prevalence and post-operative incidence and frequency of self-reported hypoglycemia symptoms as well as potential preoperative risk factors.

RESULTS

In all groups, postoperative prevalence of hypoglycemia symptoms was 38.5%. Symptom prevalence increased postoperatively from 2.8%-36.4% after RYGB in patients without preoperative diabetes (T2D), with similar patterns in prediabetes (4.9%-29.1%). Individuals with T2D had higher baseline hypoglycemia symptoms (28.9%), increasing after RYGB (57.9%). Hypoglycemia symptoms were lower after LAGB, with 39.1% reported hypoglycemia symptoms at only 1 postoperative visit with few (4.0%) having persistent symptoms at 6 or more annual visits. Timing of symptoms was not restricted to the postprandial state. Symptoms of severe hypoglycemia were reported in 2.6-3.6% after RYGB. The dominant risk factor for postoperative symptoms was preoperative symptoms; additionally, baseline selective serotonin (SSRI) and serotonin-norepinephrine (SNRI) reuptake inhibitor use was also associated with increased risk in multivariable analysis. Weight loss and regain were not related to hypoglycemia symptom reporting.

CONCLUSION

Hypoglycemia symptoms increase over time after RYGB, particularly in patients without diabetes. In a small percentage, symptoms can be persistent or severe and require hospitalization. Preoperative hypoglycemia symptoms and SSRI/SNRI use in RYGB patients without diabetes is associated with increased risk of symptoms.

Use of Selective Arterial Calcium Stimulation Testing in Identification of Insulinoma in a Patient After Bariatric Surgery

OBJECTIVE

Insulinomas are rare in the post-bariatric surgery setting. The differential diagnosis for hypoglycemia is broad, requiring laboratory testing to verify endogenous hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia. Selective arterial calcium stimulation testing (SACST) can help localize abnormal insulin production. We describe a patient with histologically confirmed insulinoma after bariatric surgery diagnosed with the aid of SACST.

METHODS

We present a 67 year old woman with a history of Roux-en-Y bypass surgery who presented with endogenous hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia. Initially, no pancreatic lesion was identified radiologically. We pursued SACST to localize the source of insulin production.

RESULTS

The SACST successfully localized the source of hyperfunctioning islet cells to the pancreatic tail with absolute insulin values in a range consistent with insulinoma. Additional radiologic studies showed a small tumor in the pancreatic tail. Pathology showed a well-differentiated neuroendocrine tumor, compatible with insulinoma.

CONCLUSION

This case study illustrates the usefulness of SACST for the diagnosis and localization of insulinoma.

The Impact of obesity and diabetes mellitus on pancreatic cancer: Molecular mechanisms and clinical perspectives

The incidence of obesity and type 2 diabetes (T2DM) in the Western world has increased dramatically during the recent decades. According to the American Cancer Society, pancreatic cancer (PC) is the fourth leading cause of cancer‐related death in the United States. The relationship among obesity, T2DM and PC is complex. Due to increase in obesity, diabetes, alcohol consumption and sedentary lifestyle, the mortality due to PC is expected to rise significantly by year 2040. The underlying mechanisms by which diabetes and obesity contribute to pancreatic tumorigenesis are not well understood. Furthermore, metabolism and microenvironment within the pancreas can also modulate pancreatic carcinogenesis. The risk of PC on a population level may be reduced by modifiable lifestyle risk factors. In this review, the interactions of diabetes and obesity to PC development were summarized, and novel strategies for the prevention and treatment of diabetes and PC were discussed.

[Quality of indications in bariatric surgery]

Bariatric and metabolic surgery is increasingly being utilized in Germany and also worldwide. Due to the increased perioperative risk compared to non-obese patients, a detailed and accurate preoperative assessment of the patient is pivotal to improve postoperative and long-term outcomes. The indications for bariatric surgery have shifted in recent years from a certain body mass index (BMI) to comorbidity-based indications. In 2018 the German S3 guidelines for metabolic surgery defined the indications for bariatric surgery as well as the preoperative assessment. The indications for bariatric metabolic operations should be assessed by an interdisciplinary team consisting of surgeons, internists, diabetologists, psychologists and dietitians. It is paramount that surgeon and patient define realistic goals of these operations. Also, the different types of bariatric operation and their long-term consequences should be discussed. Additionally, a thorough endocrinological assessment by an internist or diabetologist with respect to relevant comorbidities of obesity as well as the adjustment of existing therapies are important. An assessment by a mental health professional is also mandatory; however, psychological comorbidities are not a contraindication as long as the patient is being treated and the disease is controlled. A preoperative short-term high-protein and low-carbohydrate fluid nutrition helps to reduce the risk of postoperative complications, especially for patients with a high BMI. A preoperative weight loss in the sense of a mandatory loss of a defined proportion of the body weight is not useful.

Hypoglycemia After Upper Gastrointestinal Surgery: Clinical Approach to Assessment, Diagnosis, and Treatment

CONTEXT

Post-bariatric hypoglycemia (PBH) is an increasingly encountered complication of upper gastrointestinal surgery; the prevalence of this condition is anticipated to rise given yearly increases in bariatric surgical procedures. While PBH is incompletely understood, there is a growing body of research describing the associated factors, mechanisms, and treatment approaches for this condition.

EVIDENCE ACQUISITION

Data are integrated and summarized from studies of individuals affected by PBH and hypoglycemia following upper gastrointestinal surgery obtained from PubMed searches (1990-2020).

EVIDENCE SYNTHESIS

Information addressing etiology, incidence/prevalence, clinical characteristics, assessment, and treatment were reviewed and synthesized for the practicing physician. Literature reports were supplemented by clinical experience as indicated, when published data were not available.

CONCLUSION

PBH can be life-altering and severe for a subset of individuals. Given the chronic nature of this condition, and sequelae of both acute and recurrent episodes, increasing provider awareness of both the condition and associated risk factors is critical for assessment, prompt diagnosis, treatment, and preoperative identification of individuals at risk.

PROINSULIN-PREDOMINANT PANCREATIC NEUROENDOCRINE TUMOR-INDUCED HYPOGLYCEMIA AFTER ROUX-EN-Y GASTRIC BYPASS SURGERY

Objective

To present a case of recurrent hypoglycemia following Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (RYGB) surgery whose etiology was determined to be a proinsulin-predominant pancreatic neuroendocrine tumor (a proinsulinoma).

Methods

A case report along with a brief discussion and review of the pertinent literature is presented.

Results

The patient is a 62-year-old female who presented with symptomatic hypoglycemia 11 years after RYGB surgery. Initial workup revealed low insulin levels with elevated proinsulin levels. A 72-hour fast confirmed the presence of proinsulin-induced hypoglycemia secondary to a pancreatic neuroendocrine tumor (PNET). She underwent distal pancreatectomy with splenectomy and a PNET tumor was successfully removed with resolution of her symptoms.

Conclusion

Hypoglycemia after RYGB surgery is a well-established syndrome. While there are several etiologies for this, PNETs (including proinsulinomas) should be considered in the differential diagnosis in this population. Proinsulinomas are an increasingly recognized cause of hypoglycemia. Proinsulin levels must always be included as part of the workup of hypoglycemia in an adult.

Gastroparesis and Dumping Syndrome: Current Concepts and Management

Gastroparesis and dumping syndrome both evolve from a disturbed gastric emptying mechanism. Although gastroparesis results from delayed gastric emptying and dumping syndrome from accelerated emptying of the stomach, the two entities share several similarities among which are an underestimated prevalence, considerable impairment of quality of life, the need for a multidisciplinary team setting, and a step-up treatment approach. In the following review, we will present an overview of the most important clinical aspects of gastroparesis and dumping syndrome including epidemiology, pathophysiology, presentation, and diagnostics. Finally, we highlight promising therapeutic options that might be available in the future.

Hypoglycemia After Gastric Bypass Surgery: Current Concepts and Controversies

CONTEXT

Hypoglycemia, occurring after bariatric and other forms of upper gastrointestinal surgery, is increasingly encountered by clinical endocrinologists. The true frequency of this condition remains uncertain, due, in part, to differences in the diagnostic criteria and in the affected populations, as well as relative lack of patient and physician awareness and understanding of this condition. Postbariatric hypoglycemia can be severe and disabling for some patients, with neuroglycopenia (altered cognition, seizures, and loss of consciousness) leading to falls, motor vehicle accidents, and job and income loss. Moreover, repeated episodes of hypoglycemia can result in hypoglycemia unawareness, further impairing safety and requiring the assistance of others to treat hypoglycemia.

OBJECTIVE

In this review, we summarize and integrate data from studies of patients affected by hypoglycemia after Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (RYGB) surgery, obtained from PubMed searches (1990 to 2017) and reference searches of relevant retrieved articles. Whereas hypoglycemia can also be observed after sleeve gastrectomy and fundoplication, this review is focused on post-RYGB, given the greater body of published clinical studies at present.

OUTCOME MEASURES

Data addressing specific aspects of diagnosis, pathophysiology, and treatment were reviewed by the authors; when not available, the authors have provided opinions based on clinical experience with this challenging condition.

CONCLUSIONS

Hypoglycemia, occurring after gastric bypass surgery, is challenging for patients and physicians alike. This review provides a systematic approach to diagnosis and treatment based on the underlying pathophysiology.

Implementation of Low Glycemic Index Diet Together with Cornstarch in Post-Gastric Bypass Hypoglycemia: Two Case Reports

Post-bariatric hypoglycemia (PBH) is an increasingly recognized long-term complication of bariatric surgery. The nutritional treatment of PBH includes a high-fiber diet and the restriction of soluble and high-glycemic index carbohydrates; however, these measures are not always enough to prevent hypoglycemia. We evaluated the efficacy of uncooked cornstarch, a low-glycemic index carbohydrate characterized by slow intestinal degradation and absorption, in addition to a high-fiber diet, for the treatment of PBH. We report the cases of two young women suffering from severe postprandial and fasting hypoglycemia following Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (RYGB). The patients underwent Continuous Glucose Monitoring (CGM) before and 12–16 weeks after the administration of uncooked cornstarch (respectively 1.25 g/kg b.w. and 1.8 g/kg b.w.) in addition to a high-fiber diet. In both patients, CGM showed more stable glucose levels throughout monitoring, a remarkable reduction of the time spent in hypoglycemia (<55 mg/dL) both during the day (−11% for both patients) and the night (−22% and −32%), and the improvement of all glycemic variability indexes. Our report, within the limit of only two cases, suggests that the implementation of a dietary intervention through the addition of uncooked cornstarch reduces daily glycemic fluctuations and hypoglycemic episodes in patients with PBH.

Hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia after gastric bypass surgery: what's up and what's down?

Obesity is a global public health problem and attempts to treat this condition using life style with and without pharmacological interventions have not been successful in majority of obese individuals. To date, the most effective treatment for obesity is weight loss surgery. One of the most widely used procedures to treat obesity worldwide, Roux-en-Y gastric bypass surgery (RYGB), has shown to induce diabetes remission in addition to significant and sustainable weight loss. As the number of this procedure performed over the last two decades increased, it has become clear that a subgroup of individuals develop postprandial hypoglycemia several years after surgery. This debilitating late complication of RYGB is often associated with loss of consciousness or seizures, and in severe cases, it is only partially responsive to diet modification or other available therapeutic options. The diagnosis is often a challenge resulting in delays in receiving care in the affected individuals. Although the underlying mechanisms are under current investigations, growing evidence suggest that a combination of exaggerated meal-derived nutrient appearance to systemic circulation and altered islet and gut hormone response after eating have a role in pathogenesis of this condition. The goal of this review is to highlight new perspectives regarding this life-threatening complication of RYGB. The etiology, diagnosis, recommendation on how to distinguish from classic dumping and current available treatment based on literature review will be discussed. In addition, physiologic changes after gastric bypass predisposing to hypoglycemia syndrome will be highlighted.International Journal of Obesity advance online publication, 31 October 2017; doi:10.1038/ijo.2017.257.

Heterogeneity of proliferative markers in pancreatic β-cells of patients with severe hypoglycemia following Roux-en-Y gastric bypass

AIMS

Severe postprandial hypoglycemia with neuroglycopenia is an increasingly recognized, debilitating complication of Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (RYGB) surgery. Increased secretion of insulin and incretin hormones is implicated in its pathogenesis. Histopathologic examination of pancreas has demonstrated increased islet size and/or nuclear diameter in post-RYGB patients who underwent pancreatectomy for severe refractory hypoglycemia with neuroglycopenia (RYGB + NG). We aimed to determine whether β-cell proliferation or apoptosis is altered in RYGB + NG.

METHODS

We performed an observational study to analyze markers of proliferation, apoptosis, cell cycle, and transcription factor expression in pancreatic tissue from affected RYGB + NG patients (n = 12), normoglycemic patients undergoing pancreatic surgery for benign lesions (controls, n = 6), and individuals with hypoglycemia due to insulinoma (n = 52).

RESULTS

Proliferative cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) expression was increased in insulin-positive cells in RYGB + NG patients (4.5-fold increase, p < 0.001 vs. controls) and correlated with β-cell mass. Ki-67 immunoreactivity was low in both RYGB + NG and controls, but did not differ between groups. Phospho-histone H3 levels did not differ between RYGB + NG and controls. PCNA and Ki-67 were both significantly lower in both controls and RYGB + NG than insulinomas. Markers of apoptosis and cell cycle (M30, p27, and p21) did not differ between groups. PDX1 and menin exhibited similar expression patterns, while FOXO1 appeared to be more cytosolic in RYGB + NG.

CONCLUSIONS

Markers of proliferation are heterogeneous in patients with severe post-RYGB hypoglycemia. Increased β-cell proliferation in some individuals may contribute to increased β-cell mass observed in severely affected patients.

Medical nutrition therapy for post-bariatric hypoglycemia: practical insights

Hypoglycemia is increasingly recognized as a complication of bariatric surgery. Although medications are often required, medical nutrition therapy remains the key cornerstone for successful prevention of hypoglycemia in patients with post-bariatric hypoglycemia (PBH). We provide suggested approaches to the dietary management of PBH, incorporating data from both the medical literature and extensive clinical experience in an academic referral center for PBH. The overall goal of medical nutrition therapy for PBH is to reduce postprandial surges in glucose, which often trigger surges in insulin secretion and promote subsequent hypoglycemia. Thus, strategies focus on controlled portions of low glycemic index carbohydrates, avoidance of rapidly-absorbed carbohydrates, adjustment of timing of meals and snacks, and attention to personal and cultural barriers to implementation.

Dumping syndrome after esophageal, gastric or bariatric surgery: pathophysiology, diagnosis, and management

BACKGROUND

Dumping syndrome, a common complication of esophageal, gastric or bariatric surgery, includes early and late dumping symptoms. Early dumping occurs within 1 h after eating, when rapid emptying of food into the small intestine triggers rapid fluid shifts into the intestinal lumen and release of gastrointestinal hormones, resulting in gastrointestinal and vasomotor symptoms. Late dumping occurs 1-3 h after carbohydrate ingestion, caused by an incretin-driven hyperinsulinemic response resulting in hypoglycemia. Clinical recommendations are needed for the diagnosis and management of dumping syndrome.

METHODS

A systematic literature review was performed through February 2016. Evidence-based medicine was used to develop diagnostic and management strategies for dumping syndrome.

RESULTS

Dumping syndrome should be suspected based on concurrent presentation of multiple suggestive symptoms after upper abdominal surgery. Suspected dumping syndrome can be confirmed using symptom-based questionnaires, glycemia measurements and oral glucose tolerance tests. First-line management of dumping syndrome involves dietary modification, as well as acarbose treatment for persistent hypoglycemia. If these approaches are unsuccessful, somatostatin analogues should be considered in patients with dumping syndrome and impaired quality of life. Surgical re-intervention or continuous enteral feeding may be necessary for treatment-refractory dumping syndrome, but outcomes are variable.

CONCLUSIONS

Implementation of these diagnostic and treatment recommendations may improve dumping syndrome management.