Are we exacerbating students' learning disabilities? an investigation of preservice teachers' attributions of the educational outcomes of students with learning disabilities

Are students with learning disabilities correctly diagnosed in Turkey?

There has been an ongoing debate on how to diagnose learning disability (LD), with experts proposing different approaches. Very limited research is available on the diagnosis of LD in Turkey. This study aims to analyze the problems related to the diagnosis of LD in Turkey. For this purpose, the intelligence test results of the diagnosed students, the opinions of the teachers who referred them for the diagnosis, and the views of the child psychiatrists and psychological counselors involved in the diagnosis were examined. The results showed that the IQ-Achievement Discrepancy approach is implemented in Turkey. It was also revealed that the students' Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-R) average score was 80.31, and teachers mostly reported the weaknesses of the students during the diagnosis process. Psychological counselors and psychiatrists pointed out the outdatedness of the tools used in the diagnosis, the limited number of measurement instruments to be used in the diagnosis, referral of too many students, and the lack of specialists to work in the diagnosis. The results are discussed on the basis of diagnostic approaches.

Does the ‘Learning Disability’ label lower teachers’ performance expectations?

Teachers’ expectations are known to influence students’ outcomes. Specifically, better performance is observed among students for whom teachers have high expectations, and vice versa. Teachers not only form their expectations on the basis of previous achievements, but also on the (presumed) group affiliation of students. One group for whom teachers have low-performance expectations are students with learning disabilities. Studies in English-speaking countries have shown that the explicit mention of the diagnosis learning disability lowers teachers’ performance expectations for students labelled in this way. Our study aims to explore (1) whether the effects of this label on performance expectations can be replicated in a sample of prospective teachers in Germany, (2) whether regular and special education teachers generally differ in their expectations, and (3) whether the learning disability label influences the two professional groups differently. In an experimental design, N = 276 participants were randomly assigned to either the experimental or the control group. In both groups, they read the description of a fictitious student showing major academic problems. The student was labelled as having a learning disability in the experimental group only. Different dependent variables concerning performance expectations were evaluated. The results show that while no main effect of the learning disability label was observed, prospective special education teachers partially seem to have lower performance expectations than prospective regular education teachers. Further analysis showed that the participants in the experimental group and special education teachers suspect a learning disability more frequently. Limitations and directions for the further research are discussed.

A data-fusion approach to identifying developmental dyslexia from multi-omics datasets

This exploratory study tested and validated the use of data fusion and machine learning techniques to probe high-throughput omics and clinical data with a goal of exploring the etiology of developmental dyslexia. Developmental dyslexia is the leading learning disability in school aged children affecting roughly 5-10% of the US population. The complex biological and neurological phenotype of this life altering disability complicates its diagnosis. Phenome, exome, and metabolome data was collected allowing us to fully explore this system from a behavioral, cellular, and molecular point of view. This study provides a proof of concept showing that data fusion and ensemble learning techniques can outperform traditional machine learning techniques when provided small and complex multi-omics and clinical datasets. Heterogenous stacking classifiers consisting of single-omic experts/models achieved an accuracy of 86%, F1 score of 0.89, and AUC value of 0.83. Ensemble methods also provided a ranked list of important features that suggests exome single nucleotide polymorphisms found in the thalamus and cerebellum could be potential biomarkers for developmental dyslexia and heavily influenced the classification of DD within our machine learning models.

Examining School Psychologists’ Attitudes Toward Standardized Assessment Tools

Despite a call for evidence-based practice in school psychology, limited research on the topic of evidence-based assessment exists. To begin to address this gap in the research, a modified version of Jenson–Doss and Hawley’s (2010) Attitudes Toward Standardized Assessment (ASA) scale was administered to 371 U.S. school psychologists. Examination of the modified ASA’s factor structure suggested that a bifactor model with a single overall domain and three sub-domains was the most parsimonious. Indices of dimensionality indicated that the overall score may be the best indicator of school psychologist’s perceptions of standardized assessment. Additionally, school psychologists’ reported favorable attitudes of standardized assessment compared to clinical judgment alone. Limitations and implications for future research are discussed.

Mindset Theory and School Psychology

Mindset theory is an achievement motivation theory that centers on the concept of the malleability of abilities. According to mindset theory, students tend to have either a growth mindset or a fixed mindset about their intelligence; students with a growth mindset tend to believe that intelligence is malleable, whereas students with fixed mindsets tend to believe that intelligence is unchangeable. As described in many empirical and theoretical papers, the mindset a student holds can influence important psychological and behavioral factors, including reaction to failure, persistence and level of effort, and expectations of success, which ultimately impact academic achievement. Importantly, mindsets can be changed, and interventions have been developed to promote a more growth mindset. A growth mindset allows students to view challenges as an opportunity for improvement, is linked to enjoyment of learning, and increases motivation in school. School psychologists are often working with students with learning differences and/or mental health concerns who are particularly at-risk for poor academic achievement, and researchers have demonstrated the important impact a growth mindset can have for these vulnerable students. School psychologists are well-positioned to incorporate mindset theory into the school environment in order to best support the students they serve. In this paper we provide a theoretical overview of mindset theory and mindset interventions, and specifically review the literature on mindset theory for individuals with learning disabilities and mental health challenges. We discuss how school psychologists can incorporate mindset theory into their practice to support the shift from a fixed to a growth mindset for all students.

The comparability of intelligence test results: Group- and individual-level comparisons of seven intelligence tests

A significant body of research has demonstrated that IQs obtained from different intelligence tests substantially correlate at the group level. Yet, there is minimal research investigating whether different intelligence tests yield comparable results for individuals. Examining this issue is paramount given that high-stakes decisions are based on individual test results. Consequently, we investigated whether seven current and widely used intelligence tests yielded comparable results for individuals between the ages of 4-20 years. Results mostly indicated substantial correlations between tests, although several significant mean differences at the group level were identified. Results associated with individual-level comparability indicated that the interpretation of exact IQ scores cannot be empirically supported, as the 95% confidence intervals could not be reliably replicated with different intelligence tests. Similar patterns also appeared for the individual-level comparability of nonverbal and verbal intelligence factor scores. Furthermore, the nominal level of intelligence systematically predicted IQ differences between tests, with above- and below-average IQ scores associated with larger differences as compared to average IQ scores. Analyses based on continuous data confirmed that differences appeared to increase toward the above-average IQ score range. These findings are critical as these are the ranges in which diagnostic questions most often arise in practice. Implications for test interpretation and test construction are discussed.

Here I sit, making men in my own image: how learning disorder labels affect teacher student’s expectancies

Teacher’s evaluation of students is sometimes negatively affected by diagnostic labels. We explored such negative effects caused by the labels “dyscalculia”, “dyslexia”, and “ADHD” in teacher students. In Experiment 1, we varied the presence of the dyscalculia and dyslexia label in vignettes between participants. The dyslexia but not the dyscalculia label had a negative effect on participant’s academic expectations. In our preregistered Experiment 2, the presence of the ADHD label in vignettes was manipulated within participants. To understand the cognitive mechanisms driving label effects, we explored participants’ attributions regarding the students’ problems. Furthermore, a short dissonance-based intervention for counteracting negative label effects was implemented. Unexpectedly, we found both negative and positive label effects. The label led to more positive performance expectations and to more negative ratings of problem stability and problem control. The dissonance-based intervention led to more positive evaluations regardless of whether the ADHD label was mentioned or not. Overall, our findings suggest that learning-disorder labels affect teachers’ expectations in different ways.

A Systematic Review of Teachers' Causal Attributions: Prevalence, Correlates, and Consequences

The current review provides an overview of published research on teachers' causal attributions since 1970s in the context of theoretical assumptions outlined in Weiner's (2010) attribution theory. Results across 79 studies are first examined with respect to the prevalence of teachers' interpersonal causal attributions for student performance and misbehavior, as well as intrapersonal attributions for occupational stress. Second, findings showing significant relations between teachers' attributions and their emotions and cognitions, as well as student outcomes, are discussed. Third, an overview of results showing the prevalence and implications of teachers' causal attributions to be moderated by critical background variables is also provided. Finally, observed themes across study findings are highlighted with respect to the fundamental attribution error and the utility of Weiner's attribution theory for understanding how teachers' explanations for classroom stressors impact their instruction, well-being, and student development.

Potential or problem? An investigation of secondary school teachers' attributions of the educational outcomes of students with specific learning difficulties

Despite strong support for inclusive education in principle, many teachers and administrators still demonstrate mixed responses to the inclusion of certain students in their classrooms. Students with specific learning difficulties (SpLD) form a large group of students in inclusive classrooms yet some provincial, state and national jurisdictions fail to acknowledge the existence of these students. Not acknowledging and understanding these students can deny them the recognition and resources necessary for their genuine participation in education and, in turn, society. The aim of this study was to examine British in-service secondary teachers' attributional responses to students with and without specific learning difficulties. The participants included 122 British secondary school teachers who were surveyed in response to vignettes of hypothetical male students who had failed a class test. The study found that while teachers attributed more positive causes towards students without SpLD, they exhibited more negative causes towards students with SpLD. Teachers' causal attributional outcomes of students' level of achievement can impact upon the students' own attributions, with teachers' responses for students with SpLD having the potential to, unintentionally, influence students' own sense of self-efficacy and motivation. The paper concludes with a consideration of the implications of the research and recommendations for practice.

Attitudes of Primary School Teachers in Three Western Countries Toward Learning Disabilities

In recent years, teachers in Western countries have developed beliefs and attitudes related to working with students with specific learning disabilities (LD) that may be critical in shaping their educational practices with them; however, their beliefs and attitudes differ across political and geographical contexts and may be influenced by specific contextual circumstances and national legislation. This study examines these issues by comparing beliefs and attitudes among 557 primary school teachers from specific areas of three countries (Italy, Spain, and the United States). Results from this study support the hypothesis that, in general, teachers in these areas are sufficiently well informed about students with LD and are in favor of policies supporting these students' needs. However, substantial differences emerge among countries about the etiology of LD; teachers' and specialists' roles in managing LD students; intervention planning, inclusion, and compensatory provisions; and the range of emotional attitudes that teachers exhibit. These differences have implications for intervention and suggest that efforts should be made to increase collaboration and promotion of common policies across countries.

A Cross-National Comparison of Attributional Patterns Toward Students With and Without Learning Disabilities

Claims of the importance of having positive perceptions and expectations of students with learning disabilities (LD) have been repeatedly made over recent years. This article aims to raise awareness of the importance of attributional beliefs in relation to the educational outcomes of students with LD in Australia and China. Australian and Chinese trainee teachers ( N = 240) who were at the end of their training were surveyed with vignettes and Likert-scale questions to ascertain their responses to students with and without LD. Overall, the findings suggest that Chinese trainee teachers' attributional pattern is more positive than that of their Australian counterparts. Implications and recommendations for research and practice are also presented.

Assessing Validity of Measurement in Learning Disabilities Using Hierarchical Generalized Linear Modeling: The Roles of Anxiety and Motivation

The purpose of the present studies was to test the hypothesis that the psychometric characteristics of ability scales may be significantly distorted if one accounts for emotional factors during test taking. Specifically, the present studies evaluate the effects of anxiety and motivation on the item difficulties of the Rasch model. In Study 1, the validity of a reading comprehension scale was evaluated using the Rasch model with 60 students with learning disabilities (LD). Item parameters were retested for the presence of anxiety and results indicated that the scale was substantially more difficult in its presence. Study 2 replicated the findings of Study 1 using maladaptive motivation and extended with inclusion of adaptive motivational variables in order to reverse the effect. Results using students with and without LD indicated that the difficulty levels of the scale was lower for students with LD, in the presence of positive motivation, compared with a typical student group. Study 3 extended the dichotomous hierarchical generalized linear model with polytomous data. The measures of an ability test were adjusted for the presence of anxiety and results indicated that differential item functioning was observed at both the global level and the most difficult ability item. It is concluded that the difficulty levels of a scale are heavily influenced by situational factors during testing, such as students' entry levels of motivation and affect.