Testicular histomorphometry and ultrastructure of rats treated with cadmium and Ginkgo biloba

Ginkgo biloba extract protects against tartrazine-induced testicular toxicity in rats: involvement of antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptotic mechanisms

The use of additives, especially colorants, in food and pharmaceutical industry is increasing dramatically. Currently, additives are classified as contaminants of emerging concern (CECs). Concerns have been raised about the potential hazards of food additives to reproductive organs and fertility. The present study investigates the reproductive toxicity of tartrazine (TRZ), a synthetic colorant, in male rats and aims to explore the curative effect of Ginkgo biloba extract (EGb) against TRZ-induced testicular toxicity. Twenty-four rats were divided into four groups: the control (0.5 ml distilled water), the EGb group (100 mg/kg EGb alone), the TRZ group (7.5 mg/kg TRZ alone), and the TRZ-EGb group (7.5 mg/kg TRZ plus 100 mg/kg EGb). The doses were administered orally in distilled water once daily for 28 days. Toxicity studies of TRZ investigated testicular redox state, serum gonadotropins, and testosterone levels, testicular 17 ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase activity, sperm count and quality, levels of inflammatory cytokines, and caspase-3 expression as an apoptotic marker. Also, histopathological alterations of the testes were examined. TRZ significantly affected the testicular redox status as indicated by the increase in malondialdehyde and the decrease in reduced glutathione, superoxide dismutase, and catalase. It also disrupted serum gonadotropins (follicle stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone) and testosterone levels and the activity of testicular 17ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase. Additionally, TRZ adversely affected sperm count, motility, viability, and abnormality. Levels of tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin-1β, interleukin-6, and expression of caspase-3 were increased in the testes. Histopathological examination of the testes supported the alterations mentioned above. Administration of EGb significantly ameliorated TRZ-induced testicular toxicity in rats. In conclusion, EGb protected against TRZ-induced testicular toxicity through antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptotic mechanisms.

Multiple Targets of Toxicity in Environmental Exposure to Low-Dose Cadmium

Dietary assessment reports and population surveillance programs show that chronic exposure to low levels of environmental cadmium (Cd) is inevitable for most people, and adversely impacts the health of children and adults. Based on a risk assessment model that considers an increase in the excretion of β₂-microglobulin (β₂M) above 300 μg/g creatinine to be the "critical" toxicity endpoint, the tolerable intake level of Cd was set at 0.83 µg/kg body weight/day, and a urinary Cd excretion rate of 5.24 µg/g creatinine was considered to be the toxicity threshold level. The aim of this review is to draw attention to the many other toxicity endpoints that are both clinically relevant and more appropriate to derive Cd exposure limits than a β₂M endpoint. In the present review, we focus on a reduction in the glomerular filtration rate and diminished fecundity because chronic exposure to low-dose Cd, reflected by its excretion levels as low as 0.5 µg/g creatinine, have been associated with dose-dependent increases in risk of these pathological symptoms. Some protective effects of the nutritionally essential elements selenium and zinc are highlighted. Cd-induced mitochondrial dysfunction is discussed as a potential mechanism underlying gonadal toxicities and infertility.

Potentialities of Ginkgo extract on toxicants, toxins, and radiation: a critical review

Exposure to toxins is a severe threat to human health and life in today's developing and industrialized world. Therefore, identifying a protective chemical could be valuable and fascinating in this case. The purpose of this article was to bring together thorough review of studies on Ginkgo biloba to aid in the creation of ways for delivering its phytoconstituents to treat toxicants and radiation. This review gathered and evaluated studies on the defensive impact of Ginkgo biloba extract (GBE) against toxicities caused by toxic chemical agents (such as lead, cadmium, and aluminum), natural toxins (for example, lipopolysaccharide-induced toxicity and damage, gossypol, latadenes, and lotaustralin), and radiation (for example, gamma, ultra-violet, and radio-frequency radiation). According to this review, GBE has a considerable therapeutic effect by influencing specific pathophysiological targets. Furthermore, GBE has antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-apoptotic, and antigenotoxicity properties against various toxicities. These are due to flavone glycosides (primarily isorhamnetin, kaempferol, and quercetin) and terpene trilactones (ginkgolides A, B, C, and bilobalide) that aid GBEs' neutralizing effect against radiation and toxins by acting independently or synergistically. This will serve as a reference for the functional food, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical industries worldwide.

Effects of Cadmium Exposure on Leydig Cells and Blood Vessels in Mouse Testis

Environmental exposure to cadmium (Cd) contributes to a decline in the quality of human semen. Although the testis is sensitive to Cd exposure, the mechanism underlying how cadmium affects the testis remains to be defined. In this study, male mice were treated with intraperitoneal injections of 0, 0.5, 1.5 and 2.5 mg CdCl₂/kg/day for 10 days, respectively. Both the testicular weight and the 3β-HSD activity of Leydig cells were significantly reduced with the administration of 2.5 mg CdCl₂/kg/day. The height of endothelial cells in the interstitial blood vessels significantly increased with the use of 2.5 mg CdCl₂/kg/day compared with the control. Western blot data showed that the protein levels of CD31, αSMA, caveolin and Ng2 increased with cadmium exposure, and this increase was particularly significant with the administration of 2.5 mg CdCl₂/kg/day. CD31, αSMA, caveolin and Ng2 are related to angiogenesis. Based on our data, cadmium exposure may stimulate the proliferation of the mural cells and endothelial cells of blood vessels, which may lead to abnormal function of the testis.

The endocrine disrupting effects of sodium arsenite in the rat testis is not mediated through macrophage activation

Arsenic (As) is an endocrine disrupting chemical that can disturb the male reproductive system. In a previous study, it was suggested that testicular macrophages could display a role in endocrine disruption induced by As exposure. This work aimed to evaluate the effects of chronic As exposure in the testis function of Wistar rats and examine the participation of macrophage activation and inflammatory response in these processes. We examined gene expression of steroidogenic machinery and immunological markers by RT-QPCR, plasma testosterone concentrations, sperm count and morphology, and histomorphometrical parameters after 60-days exposure to 1 or 5 mg.kg^-1.day^-1 of sodium arsenite, combined or not with 50 μg.kg^-1 of LPS administered one day before euthanasia. We have demonstrated that As exposure reduced the weight of androgen-dependent organs and induced changes in spermatogenesis, in particular at the highest dose. LPS and As co-exposure promoted a decrease in testosterone synthesis, but did not increase the overexpression of markers of macrophage activation seen in LPS-only rats. Our results suggest that As does not alter the testicular macrophage function, but under immunological challenges LPS and As can display a complex interaction, which could lead to endocrine disruption.

Caffeine versus antioxidant combination (Antox) and their role in modifying cadmium-induced testicular injury in adult male albino rats

The aim of the current work was to compare the roles of caffeine and antioxidants in prevention of cadmium-induced testicular damage when given, in addition to cadmium, in adult male albino rats. Histopathological and ultra-structural examination as well as biochemical and molecular assessments were done. Cadmium chloride (4 mg/kg body weight) was administered via oral gavage from day 21 to 28 of the experiment. Caffeine (25 mg/kg) via intra-peritoneal injection and antioxidant preparation (Antox) 10 mg/kg via oral gavage were given as a pre-treatment for 21 days and concomitantly with Cd from day 21 to 28. Real-time PCR was done for determination of 3, 17 β hydroxy steroid dehydrogenase steroidogenic acute regulatory protein, caspase-9 and mitofusin 1,2 gene expression. Testosterone level, glutathione S-transferase enzyme activity, reactive oxygen species, malondialdehyde and superoxide dismutase were measured spectrophotometrically by ELISA. Histological and ultra-structural evaluation revealed disturbance of normal architecture, vacuolisation and necrosis. Vascular dilatation and congestion and collagen fibre deposition were present. A statistically significant difference was seen in all parameters when caffeine and antioxidants were given against cadmium-induced testicular injury. Overall, we conclude that both caffeine and antioxidants have the ability to reverse cadmium-induced testicular injury when given as pre-treatment prior to cadmium exposure.

Ginkgo biloba Extract Attenuates Methotrexate-Induced Testicular Injury in Rats: Cross-talk Between Oxidative Stress, Inflammation, Apoptosis, and miRNA-29a Expression

Ginkgo biloba leaf extract (GIN) is a popular Chinese herbal medicine. It has a nephroprotective effect against the nephrotoxicity induced by the chemotherapeutic agent methotrexate (MTX). This work was designed to explore the testicular protective role of GIN on MTX-induced testicular injury in a rat model. The experimental protocol lasted for 10 days for the 4 studied groups. First group: received saline (normal control, NC group). The second group was administered GIN (100 mg/kg/day) orally for 10 days (GIN C). Third group: injected with MTX (20 mg/kg ip) only on the fifth day (MTX group). Fourth group: administered GIN for 10 days with MTX injection on the fifth day (GIN+MTX group). MTX induced testicular injury as evident by a marked rise in the malondialdehyde (MDA) content, interleukin-6 (IL-6) and IL-1β protein levels, nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB) protein expression, bcl-2 associated × protein (Bax) mRNA expression, p53 mRNA and protein expressions, and miRNA29-a expression along with a marked decline in the serum level of testosterone and superoxide dismutase (SOD) content in testicular tissue in relation to the NC group. Moreover, histopathological testicular damage with a notable decrease in the Johnsen score together with a significant elevation in the testicular injury score was observed in the MTX group in comparison to the NC group. The administration of GIN ameliorated the biochemical changes as well as the testicular histopathological findings and scores. GIN could protect against MTX-induced gonadotoxicity by its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antiapoptotic activities plus the regulation of the miRNA-29a testicular expression.

Euterpe oleracea (Martius) Oil Reverses Testicular Alterations Caused after Cadmium Administration

Cadmium (Cd) is an environmental pollutant that induces reproductive toxicity by generating reactive oxygen species, which leads to oxidative stress. Euterpe oleracea fruits are known for being rich in oils containing triacylglycerol and phenolic compounds. They are considered as potent antioxidants to be used to counteract Cd effects within the testis. In the present study, adult males Swiss mice were treated with CdCl₂ aqueous solution (4.28 mg/kg) by gavage for 7 days. The experimental groups were treated with Euterpe oleracea oil at the doses of 50, 100, and 150 mg/kg, for 42 days. The results showed that Cd intoxication led to increased tubular pathologies, such as reduction in epithelium height and area thus increasing both luminal diameter and tubule-epithelium ratio. Besides, Leydig cell's morphometry indicated reduction in nucleus and cytoplasm volumes of this cell type, which were recovered after E. oleracea oil intake. In addition, serum testosterone levels, testicular Mn and Zn concentrations, SOD and CAT activity, and germ cell viability increased after oil intake. Therefore, E. oleracea oil showed a regenerative effect in the testicular parenchyma negatively affected by Cd, mainly in the animals that received the highest oil concentration (150 mg/kg).

Toxicological Effects of Cadmium on Mammalian Testis

Cadmium is a heavy metal, and people are exposed to it through contaminated foods and smoking. In humans and other mammals, cadmium causes damage to male testis. In this review, we summarize the effects of cadmium on the development and function of the testis. Cadmium causes severe structural damage to the seminiferous tubules, Sertoli cells, and blood-testis barrier, thus leading to the loss of sperm. Cadmium hinders Leydig cell development, inhibits Leydig cell function, and induces Leydig cell tumors. Cadmium also disrupts the vascular system of the testis. Cadmium is a reactive oxygen species inducer and possibly induces DNA damage, thus epigenetically regulating somatic cell and germ cell function, leading to male subfertility/infertility.

Protective effects of Ginkgo biloba L. against natural toxins, chemical toxicities, and radiation: A comprehensive review

Nowadays in our developing and industrial world, humans' health or even their life is threatened by exposure to poisons. In this situation, detecting a protective compound could be helpful and interesting. In the present article, we collected and reviewed all studies, which have been conducted so far about the protective effects of Ginkgo biloba L. (GB), one of the most ancient medicinal tree species, against toxicities induced by chemical toxic agents, natural toxins, and also radiation. In overall, investigations showed that GB exerts the antioxidant, antiinflammatory, antiapoptotic, and antigenotoxicity effects in different toxicities. There are also some special mechanisms about its protective effects against some specific toxic agents, such as acetylcholine esterase inhibition in the aluminium neurotoxicity or membrane-bond phosphodiesterase activation in the triethyltin toxicity. Ginkgolide A was the most investigated active ingredient of G. biloba leaf extract as a protective compound against toxicities, which had the similar effects of total extract. A few clinical studies have been conducted in this field, which demonstrated the beneficial effects of GB against toxic agents. However, the promising effects of this valuable herbal extract will practically remain useless without carrying out more clinical studies and proving its effects on human beings.

Effects of aqueous extract of Moringa oleifera seed on cadmium-induced reproductive toxicity in male Wistar rats

Background

Moringa oleifera seeds have been reported to increase sexual activity of male rats but its mechanism of action remains unknown.

Objective

Cadmium is a heavy metal that induces reproductive toxicity. To elucidate its possible mechanisms of action, the effects of aqueous extract of Moringa seeds (AEMS) on Cadmium-induced reproductive damage were investigated.

Methods

Thirty male rats (180–200g, n=5) were grouped as follows: Control, Cadmium (2mg/kg), AEMS (100 and 500mg/kg), Cadmium+100mg/kg AEMS and Cadmium+500mg/kg AEMS. Single intraperitoneal dose of Cadmium was administered while AEMS was given daily (p.o) for 6 weeks and thereafter sacrificed by cervical dislocation. Sperm variables were examined microscopically while serum was analysed for sex hormones and antioxidants, testicular and epididymal total protein from tissue homogenate. Data were analysed using Students t-test and ANOVA.

Results

Cadmium caused significant decrease in sperm variables. The AEMS decreased sperm motility, count and testosterone. These declines were dose dependent. Total testicular protein was significantly lowered by AEMS but total epididymal protein was not affected. Serum catalase and SOD was reduced by AEMS while MDA increased.

Conclusion

Moringa seeds may exhibit male reproductive toxicity, as observed from its deleterious effect on androgen and sperm variables. It failed to prevent cadmium-induced alteration in reproductive variables and serum antioxidants.

Adjuvant potential of virgin coconut oil extract on antiretroviral therapy-induced testicular toxicity: An ultrastructural study

The effects of Virgin coconut oil as an adjuvant to highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) were investigated on the testicular ultrastructure and biochemical markers in rats. Twenty male Sprague-Dawley rats, weighing 153-169 g were divided into four groups and treated as follows: control A (distilled water), B (HAART), C (HAART+Virgin coconut oil 10 ml/kg) and D (Virgin coconut oil [VCO] 10 ml/kg). Testicular segments were evaluated using transmission electron microscopy. Serum was assayed for testosterone, luteinising hormone, follicle stimulating hormone and testicular tissue for malondialdehyde and glutathione. Ultrastructure of basement membrane (Bm), mitochondria and spermatocytes was normal in the control group. HAART-treated group showed significant increase (p < .01) in Bm thickness with significant decrease in Leydig cell nuclear diameter (p < .05) and volume (p < .01) when compared with control group. Mitochondrial cristae appear collapsed, and Sertoli cells showed cytoplasmic vacuolations. HAART+VCO group showed improved ultrastructural details in Bm, and Sertoli cell and Leydig cells show abundant lipid droplets. Virgin coconut oil-treated group showed thinning of Bm with otherwise normal ultrastructural features of organelles. HAART-treated group showed significant increase (p < .01) in testosterone levels. There was no significant effect on malondialdehyde and glutathione levels. Virgin coconut oil improved testicular morphology and reversed HAART-induced ultrastructural alterations. Further studies on putative mechanism are required.

Could vitamin C and zinc chloride protect the germ cells against sodium arsenite?

Arsenic (As) is commonly associated with natural and human processes such as volcanic emissions, mining and herbicides production, being an important pollutant. Several studies have associated As intake with male fertility reduction, thus the aim of the present study was to evaluate whether vitamin C and/or zinc would counteract As side effects within the testicles. Adult male Wistar rats were divided into six experimental groups: control, sodium arsenite (5 mg/kg/day), vitamin C (100 mg/kg/day), zinc chloride (ZnCl2; 20 mg/kg/day), sodium arsenite + vitamin C and sodium arsenite + ZnCl2. Testicles and epididymis were harvested and either frozen or routinely processed to be embedded in glycol methacrylate resin. As reduced the seminiferous epithelium and tubules diameter due to germ cell loss. In addition, both the round spermatids population and the daily sperm production were reduced. However, ZnCl2 and vitamin C showed to be effective against such side effects, mainly regarding to sperm morphology. Long-term As intake increased the proportions of abnormal sperm, whereas the concomitant intake of As with zinc or vitamin C enhanced the proportions of normal sperm, showing that such compounds could be used to protect this cell type against morphological defects.

Grape juice concentrate (G8000(®) ) intake mitigates testicular morphological and ultrastructural damage following cadmium intoxication

Cadmium is a well-known testicular toxicant, and parts of the world population are exposed chronically by inhalation or by food and water intake. Grape products have been highlighted as important sources of bioactive compounds, having anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant and metal chelating properties. Since maintenance of tissue morphology is essential for testicular sperm development and hence male fertility, we analysed the protective effect of grape juice concentrate (GJC) (G8000(®) ) consumption on testicular morphology in rats exposed to cadmium. Thus, four groups of male Wistar rats (n = 6 per group), 50 days old, ingested either water or G8000(®) (2 g/kg/day) until they had completed one spermatogenic cycle in adult life (136 days old). Cadmium (1.2 mg / kg) was injected intraperitoneally when the animals were 80 days old into one of the water and one of the G8000 groups; intraperitoneal saline was used as a control in the other two groups. Animals anaesthetised and exsanguinated at 136 days and then perfused with Karnovsky's fixative and then the testes were collected for morphological analysis. We describe evident disruption of testicular morphology by cadmium, with alteration in tissue component proportions, reduced Leydig cells volume and initial signs of an inflammatory process. Ultrastructural analysis showed greater damage, suggesting spermatogenesis disruption. G8000(®) ingestion allowed tissue architecture to be re-established, as was corroborated by our stereological and morphometric findings. Animals from the group where G8000(®) had been administered together with cadmium revealed a significant reduction in macrophages and blood vessel volume, suggesting diminished inflammation, when compared to animals that received only cadmium. Moreover, smaller number of ultrastructural alterations was noted, revealing fewer areas of degeneration and disorganized interstitium. In conclusion, our results demonstrate that GJC consumption prevented the spermatogenic disruption promoted by cadmium, and thus could be a promising form of therapy against male infertility.

Expression and function analysis of metallothionein in the testis of stone crab Charybdis japonica exposed to cadmium

Metallothionein (MT) participates in metallic homeostasis and detoxification in living animals. Previous studies have focused mainly on the functions of MT in vertebrates, but the functions of MT during spermiogenesis in invertebrates remain unclear. In order to investigate the functions of MT during spermiogenesis in the Japanese stone crab (Charybdis japonica), we identified the C. japonica MT complete cDNA sequence from the total RNA of the testis using RT-PCR and RACE. The 587 bp MT cDNA contains: an 80 bp 5' untranslated region, a 333 bp 3' untranslated region, and a 174 bp open reading frame. MT has 57 amino acids including 19 cysteines. The protein alignment between MT sequences of C. japonica and other crabs shows a high similarity and a strong identity in cysteine residues vital for the metal-binding affinity of MT. After the cadmium (Cd) exposure, the testis displays both abnormal morphology and MT mRNA expression both of which indicate a sensitive response of testis MT to Cd. Therefore, we suggest that MT is an excellent biomarker candidate for evaluating Cd pollution.