Silver Nanoparticles Induced Oxidative Stress and Mitochondrial Injuries Mediated Autophagy in HC11 Cells Through Akt/AMPK/mTOR Pathway

The endoplasmic reticulum-mitochondrial crosstalk involved in nanoplastics and di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate co-exposure induced the damage to mouse mammary epithelial cells

With the extensive use of plastic products, significant amounts of microplastics, nanoplastic particles (NPs), and plasticizers such as Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) are continuously released into the environment. However, the toxic effects of NPs alone or in combination with DEHP on mammary glands remain unreported. This study investigates the impacts of NPs and DEHP on the structure and function of mouse mammary epithelial cells and elucidates the underlying molecular mechanisms. We found that co-exposure to NPs and DEHP induced severe pyroptosis, inflammation and oxidative stress in HC11 cells. Co-exposure also caused mitochondrial damage, as evidenced by changes in mitochondrial membrane potential, increase in mitochondrial ROS and inhibition of ATP production. Moreover, NPs and DEHP co-exposure increased the transcriptional levels of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress-related genes, activated the inflammation-related NLRP3 signaling pathway, and damaged the cell membrane integrity. Notably, Co-exposure enhanced the ER-mitochondria crosstalk in HC11 cells, as evidenced by the upregulated transcriptional levels of ER Ca2+ channel proteins (Ip3r1, Grp75 and Vdac1), increased mitochondrial Ca2+ levels, and expanded mitochondrial-ER contact areas. In summary, this study revealed that NPs and DEHP co-exposure had the potential to induce pyroptosis and inflammation by enhancing the ER-mitochondria crosstalk, ultimately resulting in injury to mammary glands. These findings would provide some new insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying the toxic effects of NPs and DEHP to mammary glands.

Selenium triggers AMPK-mTOR pathway to modulate autophagy related to oxidative stress of sheep Leydig cells

The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of oxidative stress induced by excessive Se on autophagy of sheep Leydig cells and its underlying mechanism. Leydig cells isolated from the testis of 8-month-old sheep were purified using a discontinuous Percoll density gradient. Cells were divided into four treatment groups (0, 2.0, 4.0 and 8.0 μmol/L of Se). After treatment with Se for 48 h, cell proliferation was detected by CCK-8 assay kit. The biochemical methods were used to evaluate the antioxidant status of Leydig cells. The mRNA transcript and protein abundance related to the AMPK-mTOR pathway and autophagy were detected by real-time PCR and western blot analysis. The results showed that the Leydig cells treated with 8.0 μmol/L Se have the lowest cell viability. The greater ROS content and lower GSH-Px activity were also observed in the Se8.0 group. The inclusion of 2.0 μmol/L Se in the medium did not affect the autophagy of Leydig cells. However, the relative abundance of ATG5 protein and LC3II/I ratio were elevated in the Se8.0 group. Oxidative stress induced by excessive Se (8.0 μmol/L) dramatically improved the abundance of key proteins related to AMPK-mTOR pathway and led to an increase of phosphorylated AMPK, mTOR and ULK1. Compared with the Se8.0 group, compound C could significantly inhibit the key molecules of AMPK-mTOR signaling pathway and mitigate the autophagy of Leydig cells induced by excessive Se. These results indicate that appropriate Se (2.0 μmol/L) can enhance the viability of sheep Leydig cells. Oxidative stress caused by Se excess can induce cell autophagy via activating AMPK-mTOR signaling pathway. The existed crosstalk between autophagy and apoptosis could decide the fate of Leydig cells. This process could play a decisive role in the maintenance of normal male fertility and spermatogenesis by affecting the number of Leydig cells in testis.

Review on the role of autophagy in the toxicity of nanoparticles and the signaling pathways involved

As the development of nanotechnology, the application of nanoproducts and the advancement of nanomedicine, the contact of nanoparticles (NPs) with human body is becoming increasingly prevalent. This escalation elevates the risk of NPs exposure for workers, consumers, researchers, and both aquatic and terrestrial organisms throughout the production, usage, and disposal stages. Consequently, evaluating nanotoxicity remains critically important, though standardized assessment criteria are still lacking. The diverse and complex properties of NPs further complicate the understanding of their toxicological mechanisms. Autophagy, a fundamental cellular process, exhibits dual functions-both pro-survival and pro-death. This review offers an updated perspective on the dual roles of autophagy in nanotoxicity and examines the factors influencing autophagic responses. However, no definitive framework exists for predicting NPs-induced autophagy. Beyond the conventional autophagy pathways, the review highlights specific transcription factors activated by NPs and explores metabolic reprogramming. Particular attention is given to NPs-induced selective autophagy, including mitophagy, ER-phagy, ferritinophagy, lysophagy, and lipophagy. Additionally, the review investigates autophagy's involvement in NPs-mediated biological processes such as ferroptosis, inflammation, macrophage polarization, epithelial-mesenchymal transition, tumor cell proliferation and drug resistance, as well as liver and kidney injury, neurotoxicity, and other diseases. In summary, this review presents a novel update on selective autophagy-mediated nanotoxicity and elucidates the broader interactions of autophagy in NPs-induced biological processes. Collectively, these insights offer valuable strategies for mitigating nanotoxicity through autophagy modulation and advancing the development of NPs in biomedical applications.

Copper dyshomeostasis and its relationship to AMPK activation, mitochondrial dynamics, and biogenesis of mitochondria: A systematic review of in vivo studies

INTRODUCTION

Copper dyshomeostasis can be related to an increase in copper levels, resulting in toxicity, or to a decrease in tissues levels, impairing cuproenzyme activities. Inside cells, copper can be found in the cytoplasm and inside organelles, and the main organelle that compartmentalizes copper is the mitochondrion. This organelle can form networks and may fuse or fission from this, determining the mitochondrial fusion and fission processes, respectively. Together with mitophagy (autophagy of mitochondria) and mitochondrial biogenesis, mitochondrial fusion and fission (denominated mitochondrial dynamics) determine the number of mitochondria in a cell. A master regulator of mitochondrial dynamics and biogenesis of new mitochondria is AMPK. Considering that both a decrease and an increase in copper levels can influence mitochondrial turnover, especially in diseases related to copper dyshomeostasis, the objective of this systematic review was to verify the current knowledge on the influence of copper homeostasis on AMPK activation, mitochondrial dynamics, and biogenesis of new mitochondria in vivo.

METHODS

PubMed (MEDLINE), Embase, and Web of Science databases were used to search for articles in the literature. Data about the effects of a decrease or an increase in copper levels on the expression of proteins involved in mitochondrial dynamics or biogenesis, and data about AMPK and p-AMPK levels were extracted.

RESULTS

Meta-analysis has demonstrated that high copper levels increase mitochondrial fission and inhibit mitochondrial fusion. Additionally, an increase in copper levels results in AMPK activation. Few studies have analyzed the effects of high copper levels on proteins related to mitochondrial biogenesis, as well as the impact of a decrease in this metal on mitochondrial dynamics and biogenesis, and on AMPK activation.

CONCLUSIONS

Despite the results gathered in this review, other studies are necessary to completely understand the role of copper in regulating AMPK activation, mitochondrial dynamics, and the biogenesis of new mitochondria, since the cell response to a copper dyshomeostasis could be different depending on the species and tissues analyzed.

The Potential of Human Pulmonary Mesenchymal Stem Cells as Vectors for Radiosensitizing Metallic Nanoparticles: An In Vitro Study

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

Metallic nanoparticles (NPs) exhibit interesting radiosensitizing effects, and finding a way to accurately deliver them appears to be crucial. Due to their tumor tropism, mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) represent a strategic approach. Therefore, we aimed to evaluate the impact of core-shell Fe3O4@Au NPs on the functionality of human pulmonary MSCs (HPMSCs).

METHODS/RESULTS

The results showed that 100 µg/mL Fe3O4@Au NPs, accumulated in HPMSCs (revealed by Prussian blue staining), did not alter cell viability as assessed by cell counting, MTT, and LDH assays. However, caspase 9 and Bcl2 gene expression, evaluated by RT-qPCR, was regulated 72 h after exposure to the NPs. Moreover, the NPs also decreased proinflammatory cytokine/chemokine secretions, except for CXCL8 (ELISA). These modulations were associated with the downregulation of AMPK gene expression at 24 h. In contrast, the NPs did not modulate VEGF, PI3K, or PDGF gene expression. Nevertheless, a decrease in VEGF secretion was observed after 24 h of exposure to the NPs. Interestingly, the Fe3O4@Au NPs did not modulate Nrf2 gene expression, but they did regulate the expression of the genes encoding Nox4 and HMOX-1. Additionally, the NPs increased ROS production, suggesting a redox imbalance.

CONCLUSIONS

Finally, the Fe3O4@Au NPs did not affect the HPMSCs' viability or proangiogenic/tumorigenic markers. These findings are encouraging for investigating the effects of Fe3O4@Au NPs delivered by HPMSCs to tumor sites in combination with radiation.

Engagement of specific intracellular pathways in the inflammation-based reprotoxicity effect of small-size silver nanoparticles on spermatogonia and spermatocytes invitro cell models

Male infertility is a serious ongoing problem, whose causes have not yet been clearly identified. However, since human exposure to silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) has recently increased due to their beneficial properties, the present study aimed to determine the impact of small-size AgNPs on mouse spermatogonia (GC-1 spg) and spermatocytes [GC-2 spd(ts)] in vitro models as well as the ability of these nanostructures to induce inflammation. The results showed a significant dose- and time-dependent decrease in the metabolic activity in both cell models, which was correlated with an increase in the intracellular ROS level. Moreover, increased activity of caspase-9 and -3, together with enhanced expression of CASP3 and p(S15)-p53 proteins, was detected. Further studies indicated a decrease in ΔΨm after the AgNP-treatment, which proves induction of apoptosis with engagement of an intrinsic pathway. The PARP1 protein expression, the activity and protein expression of antioxidant enzymes, the GSH level, and the increased level of p-ERK1/2 indicate not only the engagement of DNA damage but also the occurrence of oxidative stress. The small-size AgNPs were able to induce inflammation, proved by increased protein expression of NF-κB, p-IκBα, and NLRP3, which indicate damage to spermatogonia and spermatocyte cells. Moreover, the PGC-1α/PPARγ and NRF2/Keap1 pathways were engaged in the observed effect. The spermatogonial cells were characterized by a stronger inflammation-based response to AgNPs, which may be correlated with the TNFα/TRAF2-based pathway. Summarizing, the obtained results prove that AgNPs impair the function of testis-derived cells by inducing the redox imbalance and inflammation process; therefore, these NPs should be carefully implemented in the human environment.

Probiotic-derived silver nanoparticles target mTOR/MMP-9/BCL-2/dependent AMPK activation for hepatic cancer treatment

Recent advances in nanotechnology have offered novel ways to combat cancer. By utilizing the reducing capabilities of Lactobacillus acidophilus, silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) are synthesized. The anti-cancer properties of AgNPs have been demonstrated in previous studies against several cancer cell lines; it has been hypothesized that these compounds might inhibit AMPK/mTOR signalling and BCL-2 expression. Consequently, the current research used both in vitro and in silico approaches to study whether Lactobacillus acidophilus AgNPs could inhibit cell proliferation autophagy and promote apoptosis in HepG2 cells. The isolated strain was identified as Lactobacillus acidophilus strain RBIM based on 16 s rRNA gene analysis. Based on our research findings, it has been observed that this particular strain can generate increased quantities of AgNPs when subjected to optimal growing conditions. The presence of silanols, carboxylates, phosphonates, and siloxanes on the surface of AgNPs was confirmed using FTIR analysis. AgNPs were configured using UV-visible spectroscopy at 425 nm. In contrast, it was observed that apoptotic cells exhibited orange-coloured bodies due to cellular shrinkage and blebbing initiated by AgNP treatment, compared to non-apoptotic cells. It is worth mentioning that AgNPs exhibited remarkable selectivity in inducing cell death, specifically in HepG2 cells, unlike normal WI-38 cells. The half-maximum inhibitory concentration (IC50) values for HepG2 and WI-38 cells were 4.217 µg/ml and 154.1 µg/ml, respectively. AgNPs induce an upregulation in the synthesis of inflammation-associated cytokines, including (TNF-α and IL-33), within HepG2 cells. AgNPs co-treatment led to higher glutathione levels and activating pro-autophagic genes such as AMPK.Additionally, it resulted in the suppression of mTOR, MMP-9, BCL-2, and α-SMA gene expression. The docking experiments suggest that the binding of AgNPs to the active site of the AMPK enzyme leads to inhibiting its activity. The inhibition of AMPK ultimately results in the suppression of the mechanistic mTOR and triggers apoptosis in HepG2 cells. In conclusion, the results of our study indicate that the utilization of AgNPs may represent a viable strategy for the eradication of liver cancerous cells through the activation of apoptosis and the enhancement of immune system reactions.

Toxicity mechanism of engineered nanomaterials: Focus on mitochondria

With the rapid development of nanotechnology, engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) are widely used in various fields. This has exacerbated the environmental pollution and human exposure of ENMs. The study of toxicity of ENMs and its mechanism has become a hot research topic in recent years. Mitochondrial damage plays an important role in the toxicity of ENMs. This paper reviews the structural damage, dysfunction, and molecular level perturbations caused by different ENMs to mitochondria, including ZnO NPs, Ag NPs, TiO2 NPs, iron oxide NPs, cadmium-based quantum dots, CuO NPs, silica NPs, carbon-based nanomaterials. Among them, mitochondrial quality control plays an important role in mitochondrial damage. We further summarize the cellular level outcomes caused by mitochondrial damage, mainly including, apoptosis, ferroptosis, pyroptosis and inflammation response. In addition, we concluded that reducing mitochondrial damage at source as well as accelerating recovery from mitochondrial damage through ENMs modification and pharmacological intervention are two feasible strategies. This review further provides new insights into the mitochondrial toxicity mechanisms of ENMs and provides a new foothold for predicting human health and environmental risks of ENMs.

Autophagy-mediated nanomaterials for tumor therapy

Autophagy is a lysosomal self-degradation pathway that plays an important protective role in maintaining intracellular environment. Deregulation of autophagy is related to several diseases, including cancer, infection, neurodegeneration, aging, and heart disease. In this review, we will summarize recent advances in autophagy-mediated nanomaterials for tumor therapy. Firstly, the autophagy signaling pathway for tumor therapy will be reviewed, including oxidative stress, mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling and autophagy-associated genes pathway. Based on that, many autophagy-mediated nanomaterials have been developed and applied in tumor therapy. According to the different structure of nanomaterials, we will review and evaluate these autophagy-mediated nanomaterials' therapeutic efficacy and potential clinical application.

Silver Nanoparticles (AgNPs) as Enhancers of Everolimus and Radiotherapy Sensitivity on Clear Cell Renal Cell Carcinoma

Nanomedicine's advent has promised to revolutionize different biomedical fields, including oncology. Silver Nanoparticles (AgNPs) showed promising results in different tumor models. Clear cell Renal Cell Carcinoma (ccRCC) is especially challenging due to its late diagnosis, poor prognosis and treatment resistance. Therefore, defining new therapeutic targets and regimens could improve patient management. This study intends to evaluate AgNPs' effect in ccRCC cells and explore their potential combinatory effect with Everolimus and Radiotherapy. AgNPs were synthesized, and their effect was evaluated regarding their entering pathway, cellular proliferation capacity, ROS production, mitochondrial membrane depolarization, cell cycle analysis and apoptosis assessment. AgNPs were combined with Everolimus or used to sensitize cells to radiotherapy. AgNPs are cytotoxic to 786-O cells, a ccRCC cell line, entering through endocytosis, increasing ROS, depolarizing mitochondrial membrane, and blocking the cell cycle, leading to a reduction of proliferation capacity and apoptosis. Combined with Everolimus, AgNPs reduce cell viability and inhibit proliferation capacity. Moreover, 786-O is intrinsically resistant to radiation, but after AgNPs' administration, radiation induces cytotoxicity through mitochondrial membrane depolarization and S phase blockage. These results demonstrate AgNPs' cytotoxic potential against ccRCC and seem promising regarding the combination with Everolimus and sensitization to radiotherapy, which can, in the future, benefit ccRCC patients' management.

Dual Implications of Nanosilver-Induced Autophagy: Nanotoxicity and Anti-Cancer Effects

In recent years, efforts have been made to identify new anti-cancer therapies. Various types of nanomaterials, including silver nanoparticles (AgNPs), are being considered as an option. In addition to its well-known antibacterial activity, AgNPs exhibit cytotoxic potential in both physiological and cancer cells by inducing stress-mediated autophagy and apoptotic cell death. A rapidly growing collection of data suggests that the proper regulation of autophagic machinery may provide an efficient tool for suppressing the development of cancer. In this light, AgNPs have emerged as a potential anti-cancer agent to support therapy of the disease. This review summarizes current data indicating the dual role of AgNP-induced autophagy and highlights factors that may influence its protective vs. its toxic potential. It also stresses that our understanding of the cellular and molecular mechanisms of autophagy machinery in cancer cells, as well as AgNP-triggered autophagy in both normal and diseased cells, remains insufficient.

Long-term application of silver nanoparticles in dental restoration materials: potential toxic injury to the CNS

Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) have durable and remarkable antimicrobial effects on pathogenic microorganisms, such as bacteria and fungi, in dental plaques. As such, they are widely added to dental restoration materials, including composite resins, denture bases, adhesives, and implants, to solve the problems of denture stomatitis, peri-implant inflammation, and oral infection caused by the long-term use of these dental restoration materials. However, AgNPs can be absorbed into the blood circulatory system through the nasal/oral mucosa, lungs, gastrointestinal tract, skin, and other pathways and then distributed into the lungs, kidneys, liver, spleen, and testes, thereby causing toxic injury to these tissues and organs. It can even be transported across the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and continuously accumulate in brain tissues, causing injury and dysfunction of neurons and glial cells; consequently, neurotoxicity occurs. Other nanomaterials with antibacterial or remineralization properties are added to dental restoration materials with AgNPs. However, studies have yet to reveal the neurotoxicity caused by dental restoration materials containing AgNPs. In this review, we summarize the application of AgNPs in dental restoration materials, the mechanism of AgNPs in cytotoxicity and toxic injury to the BBB, and the related research on the accumulation of AgNPs to cause changes of neurotoxicity. We also discuss the mechanisms of neurotoxicity caused by AgNPs and the mode and rate of AgNPs released from dental restorative materials added with AgNPs to evaluate the probability of neurotoxic injury to the central nervous system (CNS), and then provide a theoretical basis for developing new composite dental restoration materials. Mechanism of neurotoxicity caused by AgNPs: AgNPs in the blood circulation enter the brain tissue after being transported across the BBB through transendothelial cell pathway and paracellular transport pathway, and continuously accumulate in brain tissue, causing damage and dysfunction of neurons and glial cells which ultimately leads to neurotoxicity. The uptake of AgNPs by neurons, astrocytes and microglia causes damage to these cells. AgNPs with non-neurotoxic level often increases the secretion of a variety of cytokines, up-regulates the expression of metallothionein in glial cells, even up-regulates autophagy and inflammation response to protect neurons from the toxic damage of AgNPs. However, the protective effect of glial cells induced by AgNPs exposure to neurotoxic levels is insufficient, which leads to neuronal damage and dysfunction and even neuronal programmed cell death, eventually cause neurotoxicity.

Autophagy regulation by inorganic, organic, and organic/inorganic hybrid nanoparticles: Organelle damage, regulation factors, and potential pathways

The rapid development of nanotechnology requires a more thorough understanding of the potential health effects caused by nanoparticles (NPs). As a programmed cell death, autophagy is one of the biological effects induced by NPs, which maintain intracellular homeostasis by degrading damaged organelles and removing aggregates of defective proteins through lysosomes. Currently, autophagy has been shown to be associated with the development of several diseases. A significant number of research have demonstrated that most NPs can regulate autophagy, and their regulation of autophagy is divided into induction and blockade. Studying the autophagy regulation by NPs will facilitate a more comprehensive understanding of the toxicity of NPs. In this review, we will illustrate the effects of different types of NPs on autophagy, including inorganic NPs, organic NPs, and organic/inorganic hybrid NPs. The potential mechanisms by which NPs regulate autophagy are highlighted, including organelle damage, oxidative stress, inducible factors, and multiple signaling pathways. In addition, we list the factors influencing NPs-regulated autophagy. This review may provide basic information for the safety assessment of NPs.

Functionalized and Nonfunctionalized Nanosystems for Mitochondrial Drug Delivery with Metallic Nanoparticles

Background: The application of metallic nanoparticles as a novel therapeutic tool has significant potential to facilitate the treatment and diagnosis of mitochondria-based disorders. Recently, subcellular mitochondria have been trialed to cure pathologies that depend on their dysfunction. Nanoparticles made from metals and their oxides (including gold, iron, silver, platinum, zinc oxide, and titanium dioxide) have unique modi operandi that can competently rectify mitochondrial disorders. Materials: This review presents insight into the recent research reports on exposure to a myriad of metallic nanoparticles that can alter the dynamic ultrastructure of mitochondria (via altering metabolic homeostasis), as well as pause ATP production, and trigger oxidative stress. The facts and figures have been compiled from more than a hundred PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus indexed articles that describe the essential functions of mitochondria for the management of human diseases. Result: Nanoengineered metals and their oxide nanoparticles are targeted at the mitochondrial architecture that partakes in the management of a myriad of health issues, including different cancers. These nanosystems not only act as antioxidants but are also fabricated for the delivery of chemotherapeutic agents. However, the biocompatibility, safety, and efficacy of using metal nanoparticles is contested among researchers, which will be discussed further in this review.

SIRT4 Expression Ameliorates the Detrimental Effect of Heat Stress via AMPK/mTOR Signaling Pathway in BMECs

Sirtuin 4 (SIRT4), a member of the SIRT family, has been reported to be a key factor involved in antioxidant defense in mitochondria. This study aimed to explore the potential molecular mechanism via which SIRT4 regulates heat stress-induced oxidative stress and lactoprotein synthesis in bovine mammary epithelial cells (BMECs). Our results showed that SIRT4 was significantly decreased in heat stressed mammary tissue. Depletion of SIRT4 in BMECs induced the generation of ROS, which, as exhibited by the decreased activity of antioxidant enzymes, changed mitochondrial morphology through mediating protein and mRNA levels related to mitochondrial fission and fusion. Moreover, we found that depletion of SIRT4 or stress conditions inhibited the expression of milk proteins, as well as lipid and glucose synthesis-related genes, and activated the AMPK/mTOR signaling pathway. Increased SIRT4 expression was found to have the opposite effect. However, blocking the AMPK/mTOR signaling pathway could inhibit the regulatory function of SIRT4 in milk synthesis-related gene expression. In summary, our results suggest that SIRT4 may play critical roles in maintaining mammary gland function by regulating the AMPK/mTOR signaling pathway in dairy cows, indicating that SIRT4 may be a potential molecular target for curing heat stress-induced BMEC injury and low milk production in dairy cows.

Mitophagy Induced by Metal Nanoparticles for Cancer Treatment

Research on nanoparticles, especially metal nanoparticles, in cancer therapy is gaining momentum. The versatility and biocompatibility of metal nanoparticles make them ideal for various applications in cancer therapy. They can bring about apoptotic cell death in cancer cells. In addition to apoptosis, nanoparticles mediate a special type of autophagy facilitated through mitochondria called mitophagy. Interestingly, nanoparticles with antioxidant properties are capable of inducing mitophagy by altering the levels of reactive oxygen species and by influencing signaling pathways like PINK/Parkin pathway and P13K/Akt/mTOR pathway. The current review presents various roles of metal nanoparticles in inducing mitophagy in cancer cells. We envision this review sheds some light on the blind spots in the research related to mitophagy induced by nanoparticles for cancer treatment.

Wnt inhibitory factor 1 ameliorated diabetic retinopathy through the AMPK/mTOR pathway-mediated mitochondrial function

Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is one of the most common complications of diabetes mellitus and will lead to visual impairment. We aim to explore the effects and mechanisms of wnt inhibitory factor 1 (WIF1) in the progression of DR. To establish DR in vitro and in vivo, human retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) cell line ARPE-19 was treated with high-glucose (HG) and diabetic mice models were induced by streptozotocin (STZ), respectively. Different dose of recombinant WIF1 protein was used to treat DR. qRT-PCR and western blotting results demonstrated that WIF1 was downregulated, while VEGFA was upregulated in HG-induced ARPE-19 cells. WIF1 overexpression promoted cell migration. The ARPE-19 cells culture medium treated with WIF1 inhibited retinal endothelial cell tube formation and downregulated VEGFA expression. Moreover, WIF1 decreased the levels of ROS and MDA, while increasing the activity of SOD and GPX. WIF1 increased the ΔΨm in the mitochondria and downregulated the expression of mitochondrial autophagy-related proteins including Parkin, Pink1, LC3-II/LC3-I ratio, cleaved caspase 3, and cyt-c, which ameliorated mitochondrial dysfunction. The in vivo studies further demonstrated the consistent effects of WIF1 in STZ-induced mice. Taken together, WIF1 ameliorated mitochondrial dysfunction in DR by downregulating the AMPK/mTOR pathway.

Proteomics unite traditional toxicological assessment methods to evaluate the toxicity of iron oxide nanoparticles

Iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs) are the first generation of nanomaterials approved by the Food and Drug Administration for use as imaging agents and for the treatment of iron deficiency in chronic kidney disease. However, several IONPs-based imaging agents have been withdrawn because of toxic effects and the poor understanding of the underlying mechanisms. This study aimed to evaluate IONPs toxicity and to elucidate the underlying mechanism after intravenous administration in rats. Seven-week-old rats were intravenously administered IONPs at doses of 0, 10, 30, and 90 mg/kg body weight for 14 consecutive days. Toxicity and molecular perturbations were evaluated using traditional toxicological assessment methods and proteomics approaches, respectively. The administration of 90 mg/kg IONPs induced mild toxic effects, including abnormal clinical signs, lower body weight gain, changes in serum biochemical and hematological parameters, and increased organ coefficients in the spleen, liver, heart, and kidneys. Toxicokinetics, tissue distribution, histopathological, and transmission electron microscopy analyses revealed that the spleen was the primary organ for IONPs elimination from the systemic circulation and that the macrophage lysosomes were the main organelles of IONPs accumulation after intravenous administration. We identified 197 upregulated and 75 downregulated proteins in the spleen following IONPs administration by proteomics. Mechanically, the AKT/mTOR/TFEB signaling pathway facilitated autophagy and lysosomal activation in splenic macrophages. This is the first study to elucidate the mechanism of IONPs toxicity by combining proteomics with traditional methods for toxicity assessment.

EGCG protects the mouse brain against cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury by suppressing autophagy via the AKT/AMPK/mTOR phosphorylation pathway

Stroke remains one of the leading reasons of mortality and physical disability worldwide. The treatment of cerebral ischemic stroke faces challenges, partly due to a lack of effective treatments. In this study, we demonstrated that autophagy was stimulated by transient middle cerebral artery occlusion/reperfusion (MCAO/R) and oxygen-glucose deprivation/reoxygenation (OGD/R). Treatment with (−)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG), a bioactive ingredient in green tea, was able to mitigate cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury (CIRI), given the evidence that EGCG administration could reduce the infarct volume and protect poststroke neuronal loss in MCAO/R mice in vivo and attenuate cell loss in OGD/R-challenged HT22 cells in vitro through suppressing autophagy activity. Mechanistically, EGCG inhibited autophagy via modulating the AKT/AMPK/mTOR phosphorylation pathway both in vivo and in vitro models of stroke, which was further confirmed by the results that the administration of GSK690693, an AKT/AMPK inhibitor, and rapamycin, an inhibitor of mTOR, reversed aforementioned changes in autophagy and AKT/AMPK/mTOR signaling pathway. Overall, the application of EGCG relieved CIRI by suppressing autophagy via the AKT/AMPK/mTOR phosphorylation pathway.

Early Epigenetic Responses in the Genomic DNA Methylation Fingerprints in Cells in Response to Sublethal Exposure of Silver Nanoparticles

With the rapid development of nanotechnology and nanoscience, nanosafety assessment has raised public concern. Although many studies have illustrated that nanomaterials could lead to genotoxicity, the early alterations of DNA methylation with nanomaterials under low-dose exposure have not been completely clear. In this study, we investigated the potential effect and molecular mechanism of AgNPs on the alternation of DNA methylation fingerprints in HEK293T cells under sublethal exposure. Intriguingly, silver nanoparticle treatment increased 5-mC level and changed methylation-related enzyme contents. Mechanistically, we scrutinized the changes in the molecular signaling and biological functions by means of MeDIP-Seq and RNA-seq. Our results revealed that AgNPs might undermine a number of vital regulatory networks including the metabolic processes, biological regulation and other cellular processes. More specifically at the DNA methylation fingerprints, there were 12 up-regulated and simultaneous hypomethylated genes, and 22 down-regulated and concomitant hypermethylated genes in HEK293T cells responding to AgNPs. Notably, these genes were primarily involved in lipid metabolism and ion metabolism. Together, these responsive genes might be used as early sensitive indicators for the variations of early epigenetic integrity through changing the DNA methylation fingerprints, as reflective of biological risk and toxicity of silver nanoparticles under realistic exposure scenarios.

Treatment of copper nanoparticles (CuNPs) for two spermatogenic cycles impairs testicular activity via down-regulating steroid receptors and inhibition of germ cell proliferation in a mice model

Although copper is an indispensable trace metal for biological functions, its excess exposure causes hazardous effects on health. Copper in the form of nanoparticles (CuNPs) is widely used at present and therefore, the living organism is at continuous risk of its adverse effect. The prolonged treatment of CuNPs has not been evaluated yet on the male reproductive system. To demonstrate the combined adverse effects and the mechanism of copper nanoparticles (CuNPs), three doses of CuNPs, 10, 100 and 200 mg/kg were orally given to mice for 70 days. The present study demonstrated that CuNPs decreased the sperm quality parameters, male circulating hormones, induces testicular damages, increased oxidative stress, apoptosis, decreases antioxidant enzymes, germ cell proliferation, and increases the expression of 8-oxoguanine DNA glycosylase-1 (OGG1), apelin receptor (APJ) as well. CuNPs also down-regulated the expression of AR and Erα in the testis. These results suggest that CuNPs manifested their adverse effect on testis via modulating steroid and cytokine (apelin) receptors. The adverse effect of testis was most pronounced at the highest dose (200 mg/kg) of CuNPs, however, other doses show a less toxic effect on various parameters. In conclusion, results indicated that CuNPs may impair spermatogenesis via oxidative stress-mediated DNA damage and germ cell apoptosis at high doses.

Cytotoxicity of Metal-Based Nanoparticles: From Mechanisms and Methods of Evaluation to Pathological Manifestations

Metal-based nanoparticles (NPs) are particularly important tools in tissue engineering-, drug carrier-, interventional therapy-, and biobased technologies. However, their complex and varied migration and transformation pathways, as well as their continuous accumulation in closed biological systems, cause various unpredictable toxic effects that threaten human and ecosystem health. Considerable experimental and theoretical efforts have been made toward understanding these cytotoxic effects, though more research on metal-based NPs integrated with clinical medicine is required. This review summarizes the mechanisms and evaluation methods of cytotoxicity and provides an in-depth analysis of the typical effects generated in the nervous, immune, reproductive, and genetic systems. In addition, the challenges and opportunities are discussed to enhance future investigations on safer metal-based NPs for practical commercial adoption.

Proteome-wide analysis reveals molecular pathways affected by AgNP in a ROS-dependent manner

The use of mass spectrometry-based proteomics has been increasingly applied in nanomaterials risk assessments as it provides a proteome-wide overview of the molecular disturbances induced by its exposure. Here, we used this technique to gain detailed molecular insights into the role of ROS as an effector of AgNP toxicity, by incubating Bend3 cells with AgNP in the absence or presence of an antioxidant N-acetyl L-cystein (NAC). ROS generation is a key player in AgNP-induced toxicity, as cellular homeostasis was kept in the presence of NAC. By integrating MS/MS data with bioinformatics tools, in the absence of NAC, we were able to pinpoint precisely which biological pathways were affected by AgNP. Cells respond to AgNP-induced ROS generation by increasing their antioxidant pool, via NRF2 pathway activation. Additionally, cell proliferation-related pathways were strongly inhibited in a ROS-dependent manner. These findings reveal important aspects of the AgNP mechanism of action at the protein level.

Autophagy and apoptosis mediated nano-copper-induced testicular damage

Nano-copper has been increasingly employed in various products. In previous studies, we showed that nano-copper caused damage in the rat testis, but it remains unclear whether the toxic reaction can affect the reproductive function. In this study, following 28 d of exposure to nano-copper at a dose of 44, 88, and 175 mg/kg/day, there was a decrease in sperm quality, fructose content, and the secretion of sex hormones. Nano-copper also increased the level of oxidative stress, sperm malformation rate, and induced abnormal structural changes in testicular tissue. Moreover, Nano-copper upregulated the expression of apoptosis-related protein Bax and autophagy-related protein Beclin, and downregulated the expression of Bcl2 and p62. Furthermore, nano-copper (175 mg/kg) downregulated the protein expression of AMPK, p-AKT, mTOR, p-mTOR, p-4E-BP1, p70S6K, and p-p70S6K, and upregulated the protein expression of p-AMPK. Therefore, nano-copper induced damage in testicular tissues and spermatogenesis is highly related to cell apoptosis and autophagy by regulating the Akt/mTOR signaling pathway. In summary, excess exposure to nano-copper may induce testicular apoptosis and autophagy through AKT/mTOR signaling pathways, and damage the reproductive system in adult males, which is associated with oxidative stress in the testes.

Transcriptomic and proteomic responses of silver nanoparticles in hepatocyte-like cells derived from human induced pluripotent stem cells

Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) have been increasingly used in a variety of consumer products over the last decades. However, their potential adverse effects have not been fully understood. In a previous study, we characterized transcriptomic changes in human induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived hepatocyte-like cells (HLCs) in response to AgNP exposure. Here, we report findings of a follow-up proteomic study that evaluated alternations at the protein level in the same cell after being exposed to 10 μg/ml AgNPs for 24 h. In total, 6287 proteins were identified across two groups of samples (n = 3). Among these proteins, 665 were found to be differentially regulated (fold change ≥1.25, p < 0.01) between the AgNP-treated group and the untreated control group, including 264 upregulated and 401 downregulated. Bioinformatics analysis of the proteomics data, in side-by-side comparison to the transcriptomics data, confirms and substantiates previous findings on AgNP-induced alterations in metabolism, oxidative stress, inflammation, and potential association with cancer. A mechanism of action was proposed based on these results. Collectively, the findings of the current proteomic study are consistent with those of the previous transcriptomic study and further demonstrate the usefulness of iPSC-derived HLCs as an in vitro model for liver nanotoxicology.

Autophagy was activated against the damages of placentas caused by nano-copper oral exposure

Nano-copper (nano-Cu) is widely used in the pharmaceutical field as well as a feed additive for animals owing to its unique physicochemical characteristics and bioactivities. In our previous study, nano-Cu was found to hamper fetal development; however, the toxicity of nano-Cu and its effects in placental function have not been elucidated. Therefore, we investigated the toxic effects of nano-Cu using rat placenta. Pregnant Sprague-Dawley rats were orally exposed to different copper sources from the third day of gestation (GD 3) to GD 18. We found that nano-Cu (180 mg/kg) and CuCl2.2 H2O increased the accumulation of copper. Besides, nano-Cu and CuCl2.2 H2O disrupted the placental morphology and induced oxidative stress. Micro-copper (micro-Cu) caused similar toxicity in the placenta, but its effects were weaker than that of nano-Cu and CuCl2.2 H2O. In addition, exposure to nano-Cu (180 mg/kg) and CuCl2.2 H2O induced inflammation in the rat placenta. Furthermore, nano-Cu, micro-Cu, and CuCl2.2 H2O upregulated the expression of the autophagy-related proteins, Beclin-1 and LC3 II/ LC3 I, and downregulated that of p62. Moreover, nano-Cu, micro-Cu, and CuCl2.2 H2O downregulated the protein expression of PI3K, p-AKT/AKT, and p-mTOR/mTOR in rat placentas, whereas the protein expression of p-AMPK/AMPK was upregulated. Taken together, our data indicated that prenatal exposure to nano-Cu induced autophagy via the PI3K/AKT/mTOR and AMPK/mTOR pathways, which associated with oxidative stress and inflammation in rat placenta.

Lack of Detectable Direct Effects of Silver and Silver Nanoparticles on Mitochondria in Mouse Hepatocytes

Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) are well-proven antimicrobial nanomaterials, yet little is elucidated regarding the mechanism underlying cytotoxicity induced by these nanoparticles. Here, we tested the hypothesis that mitochondria are primary intracellular targets of two AgNPs and silver ions in mouse hepatocytes (AML12) cultured in glucose- and galactose-based media. AML12 cells were more sensitive to mitochondrial uncoupling when grown with galactose rather than glucose. However, 24 h treatments with 15 nm AgNPs and 6 nm GA-AgNPs (5 and 10 μg/mL) and AgNO3 (1 and 3 μg/mL), concentrations that resulted in either 10 or 30% cytotoxicity, failed to cause more toxicity to AML12 cells grown on galactose than glucose. Furthermore, colocalization analysis and subcellular Ag quantification did not show any enrichment of silver content in mitochondria in either medium. Finally, the effects of the same exposures on mitochondrial respiration were mild or undetectable, a result inconsistent with mitochondrial toxicity causing cell death. Our results suggest that neither ionic Ag nor the AgNPs that we tested specifically target mitochondria and are inconsistent with mitochondrial dysfunction being the primary cause of cell death after Ag exposure under these conditions.