Increased serum levels of interleukin-15 correlate with negative prognostic factors in extranodal NK/T cell lymphoma

The role of chemokines and interleukins in acute lymphoblastic leukemia: a systematic review

Acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) is the most common childhood hematological malignancy, but it also affects adult patients with worse prognosis and outcomes. Leukemic cells benefit from protective mechanisms, which are mediated by intercellular signaling molecules - cytokines. Through these signals, cytokines modulate the biology of leukemic cells and their surroundings, enhancing the proliferation, survival, and chemoresistance of the disease. This ultimately leads to disease progression, refractoriness, and relapse, decreasing the chances of curability and overall survival of the patients. Targeting and modulating these pathological processes without affecting the healthy physiology is desirable, offering more possibilities for the treatment of ALL patients, which still remains unsatisfactory in certain cases. In this review, we comprehensively analyze the existing literature and ongoing trials regarding the role of chemokines and interleukins in the biology of ALL. Focusing on the functional pathways, genetic background, and critical checkpoints, we constructed a summary of molecules that are promising for prognostic stratification and mainly therapeutic use. Targeted therapy, including chemokine and interleukin pathways, is a new and promising approach to the treatment of cancer. With the expansion of our knowledge, we are able to uncover a spectrum of new potential checkpoints in order to modulate the disease biology. Several cytokine-related targets are advancing toward clinical application, offering the hope of higher disease response rates to treatment.

Cytokine profiling identifies circulating IL-6 and IL-15 as prognostic stratifiers in patients with non-small cell lung cancer receiving anti-PD-1/PD-L1 blockade therapy

Whether circulating levels of specific cytokines at baseline link with treatment efficacy of immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) therapy in patients with non-small cell lung cancer remains unknown. In this study, serum samples were collected in two independent, prospective, multicenter cohorts before the initiation of ICB. Twenty cytokines were quantified, and cutoff values were determined by receiver operating characteristic analyses to predict non-durable benefit. The associations of each dichotomized cytokine status with survival outcomes were assessed. In the discovery cohort (atezolizumab cohort; N = 81), there were significant differences in progression-free survival (PFS) in accordance with the levels of IL-6 (log-rank test, P = 0.0014), IL-15 (P = 0.00011), MCP-1 (P = 0.013), MIP-1β (P = 0.0035), and PDGF-AB/BB (P = 0.016). Of these, levels of IL-6 and IL-15 were also significantly prognostic in the validation cohort (nivolumab cohort, N = 139) for PFS (log-rank test, P = 0.011 for IL-6 and P = 0.00065 for IL-15) and overall survival (OS; P = 3.3E-6 for IL-6 and P = 0.0022 for IL-15). In the merged cohort, IL-6^high and IL-15^high were identified as independent unfavorable prognostic factors for PFS and OS. The combined IL-6 and IL-15 status stratified patient survival outcomes into three distinct groups for both PFS and OS. In conclusion, combined assessment of circulating IL-6 and IL-15 levels at baseline provides valuable information to stratify the clinical outcome of patients with non-small cell lung cancer treated with ICB. Further studies are required to decipher the mechanistic basis of this finding.

The role of interleukin-15 in the development and treatment of hematological malignancies

Cytokines are a vital component of the immune system that controls the activation and growth of blood cells. However, chronic overexpression of cytokines can trigger cellular events leading to malignant transformation. The cytokine interleukin-15 (IL-15) is of particular interest, which has been shown to contribute to the development and progression of various hematological malignancies. This review will provide an overview of the impact of the immunopathogenic function of IL-15 by studying its role in cell survival, proliferation, inflammation, and treatment resistance. We will also review therapeutic approaches for inhibiting IL-15 in blood cancers.

Towards Next Generation Biomarkers in Natural Killer/T-Cell Lymphoma

Natural killer/T-cell lymphoma (NKTCL) is an Epstein-Barr virus-associated non-Hodgkin lymphoma linked to an aggressive clinical course and poor prognosis. Despite an improvement in survival outcomes with the incorporation of novel agents including immune checkpoint inhibitors in the treatment of NKTCL, a significant proportion of patients still relapse or remain refractory to treatment. Several clinical prognostic models have been developed for NKTCL patients treated in the modern era, though the optimal approach to risk stratification remains to be determined. Novel molecular biomarkers derived from multi-omic profiling have recently been developed, with the potential to improve diagnosis, prognostication and treatment of this disease. Notably, a number of potential biomarkers have emerged from a better understanding of the tumor immune microenvironment and inflammatory responses. This includes a recently described 3'UTR structural variant in the PD-L1 gene, which confers susceptibility to checkpoint immunotherapy. In this review, we summarize the biomarker landscape of NKTCL and highlight emerging biomarkers with the potential for clinical implementation.

Interleukin 15 and Eotaxin correlate with the outcome of breast cancer patients vice versa independent of CTC status

Background

Circulating tumor cells (CTC) in the peripheral blood in women with breast cancer has been found to be an indicator of prognosis before the start of systemic treatment. The aim of this study is the assessment of specific cytokine profiles as markers for CTC involvement that could act as independent prognostic markers in terms of survival outcome for breast cancer patients.

Methods

Patients selected for this study were defined as women with breast cancer of the SUCCESS study. A total of 200 patients’ sera were included in this study, 100 patients being positive for circulating tumor cells (CTC) and 100 patients being CTC negative. The matching criteria were histo-pathological grading, lymph node metastasis, hormone receptor status, TNM classification, and patient survival. Commercial ELISA with a multi cytokine/chemokine array was used to screen the sera for Interleukin 15 (IL-15) and eotaxin.

Results

Statistically significant concentrations were exposed for IL-15 levels regardless of the CTC-Status, lymph node involvement, or hormone receptor status. Significantly enhanced serum IL-15 concentrations were observed in those patients with worse overall survival (OS) and disease-free survival (DFS). Elevated serum concentrations of IL-15 significantly correlate with patients diagnosed with Grade 3 tumor and worse OS. In contrast, patients with a Grade 3 tumor with a favourable OS and DFS demonstrated significantly decreased IL-15 values. The CTC negative patient subgroup with a favourable OS and DFS, showed statistically significant elevated eotaxin values.

Conclusion

These findings suggest a potential functional interaction of increased IL-15 concentrations in the peripheral blood of patients with a worse OS and DFS, regardless of prognostic factors at primary diagnosis. The increased levels of the chemokine eotaxin in CTC negative patients and a favourable OS and DFS, on the other hand, suggest that the overexpression inhibits CTCs entering the peripheral blood, thus emphasizing a significant inhibition of circulation specific metastasis. To sum up, IL-15 could be used as an independent prognostic marker in terms of survival outcome for breast cancer patients and used as an early indicator to highlight high-risk patients and consequently the adjustment of cancer therapy strategies.

High post-treatment serum levels of soluble programmed cell death ligand 1 predict early relapse and poor prognosis in extranodal NK/T cell lymphoma patients

The impact of serum levels of soluble programmed cell death ligand 1 (sPD-L1) on prognosis in patients with Epstein-Barr virus-associated malignancies has never been investigated. We prospectively measured pre- and post-treatment serum sPD-L1 levels and evaluated their prognostic value in 97 patients with newly diagnosed, early stage extranodal NK/T-cell lymphoma (ENKTCL) treated with asparaginase-based chemotherapy followed by radiotherapy. For predicting survival outcomes, serum sPD-L1 levels of 3.23 ng/mL and 1.12 ng/mL were respectively identified for pre- and post-treatment cut-off levels. Patients with high pretreatment (>3.23 ng/mL) had shorter progression-free survival (PFS) and overall survival (OS). In a multivariate survival analysis, post-treatment sPD-L1 >1.12 ng/mL, treatment response (complete vs. non-complete response), and stage II disease were independent prognostic factors for shorter PFS and OS. In patients with a complete response, post-treatment sPD-L1 >1.12 ng/mL was associated with shorter PFS and OS. In patients with high pretreatment sPD-L1 levels (>3.23 ng/mL), low post-treatment sPD-L1 level (≤1.12 ng/mL) correlated with longer PFS and OS. Our data suggest the post-treatment sPD-L1 level is a potent biomarker for predicting early relapse and poor prognosis in early stage ENKTCL patients treated with asparaginase, and may be a useful marker of minimal residual disease.

IL-15, TIM-3 and NK cells subsets predict responsiveness to anti-CTLA-4 treatment in melanoma patients

Despite the success of immune checkpoint blockade in melanoma, the majority of patients do not respond. We hypothesized that the T and NK cell subset frequencies and expression levels of their receptors may predict responses and clinical outcome of anti-CTLA-4 treatment. We thus characterized the NK and T cell phenotype, as well as serum levels of several cytokines in 67 melanoma patients recruited in Italy and Sweden, using samples drawn prior to and during treatment. Survival correlated with low expression of the inhibitory receptor TIM-3 on circulating T and NK cells prior to and during treatment and with the increased frequency of mature circulating NK cells (defined as CD3^-CD56^dim CD16⁺) during treatment. Survival also correlated with low levels of IL-15 in the serum. Functional experiments in vitro demonstrated that sustained exposure to IL-15 enhanced the expression of PD-1 and TIM-3 on both T and NK cells, indicating a causative link between high IL-15 levels and enhanced expression of TIM-3 on these cells. Receptor blockade of TIM-3 improved NK cell-mediated elimination of melanoma metastasis cell lines in vitro. These observations may lead to the development of novel biomarkers to predict patient response to checkpoint blockade treatment. They also suggest that induction of additional checkpoints is a possibility that needs to be considered when treating melanoma patients with IL-15.

High numbers of CD68+ tumor-associated macrophages correlate with poor prognosis in extranodal NK/T-cell lymphoma, nasal type

Many studies have demonstrated that tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) were a prognostic indicator in patients with B cell lymphoma. But, we know little about the clinical significance of TAMs in extranodal natural killer/T cell lymphoma(ENKTL), nasal type. CD68 expression was detected using immunohistochemistry to determine the numbers of TAMs in 70 ENKTL patients, and the data were used to evaluate its relationship with clinicopathological features, treatment response, and prognosis. Patients with high number of infiltrated CD68+ TAMs (>60/hpf) at diagnosis tended to have more adverse clinical characteristics. Patients with low CD68+ TAM content (<60/hpf) at diagnosis had better overall survival (P = 0.003) and progression-free survival (P = 0.002) and achieved higher complete remission rates (P = 0.008). Multivariate analysis revealed that CD68 + TAM content, Ki-67 index, and stage III and IV were independent prognostic factors for both OS and PFS. Using the International Prognostic Index or Korean Prognostic Index for extranodal NK/T cell lymphoma, nasal type, the majority of patients were in the low-risk category. CD68 + TAM content was helpful to differentiate the low-risk patients with different survival outcomes. Our data suggest that CD68+ TAM content at diagnosis is a powerful predictor of prognosis for ENKTL, which suggests a role for TAMs in the pathogenesis of this disease and offers new insight into potential therapeutic strategies.

A modified international prognostic index including pretreatment hemoglobin level for early stage extranodal natural killer/T cell lymphoma

In this study, we investigated the prognostic role of pretreatment hemoglobin level in 321 patients with stage I/II extranodal natural killer (NK/T cell lymphoma (ENKTL). Patients with pretreatment hemoglobin level < 120 g/L had significantly inferior progression-free survival (PFS) and overall survival (OS) than those with hemoglobin level ≥ 120 g/L (p < 0.05). In a multivariate Cox regression model, age, Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group (performance status), lactate dehydrogenase level, Ann Arbor stage and pretreatment hemoglobin level were all independent prognostic factors for PFS and OS (p < 0.05). Using these five parameters, a modified international prognostic index (mIPI) model was constructed. This mIPI could categorize three groups with significantly different PFS and OS (both p < 0.0001) in both the training set and the validation set. In conclusion, this study confirmed the prognostic role of pretreatment hemoglobin level in ENKTL, and a newly modified IPI including pretreatment hemoglobin level could be used to further optimize treatments for patients with stage I/II ENKTL, especially in the era of asparaginase.