Atorvastatin induces downregulation of matrix metalloproteinase-2/9 in MDA-MB-231 triple negative breast cancer cells

Bioinformatics approach reveals the modulatory role of JUN in atorvastatin-mediated anti-breast cancer effects

Atorvastatin, a widely prescribed cholesterol-lowering drug, has recently shown potential anticancer effects. However, its influence on gene expression and its biological functions in cancer, in particular breast cancer, still unclear. We aim to identify the dysregulated genes associated with atorvastatin treatment and the main players in their biological network. A total of 103 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in the unified signature were identified, and the functional enrichment analysis suggested their relation to multiple cancer-related pathways. JUN was identified as the hub gene in the protein-protein interaction (PPI) network and was shown to be responsive to atorvastatin in breast cancer. Atorvastatin exhibited notable predicted cytotoxicity against breast cancer lines, with the activity positively correlated with JUN expression. JUN was significantly downregulated in breast cancer expression inversely correlated with cancer progression, whereas higher JUN expression was linked with better survival outcomes. Atorvastatin may directly interact with JUN protein forming a more compact and stable conformation. These findings demystify the potential therapeutic mechanism of atorvastatin in breast cancer, possibly by fine tuning of JUN expression. As such, JUN might serve as a valuable prognostic biomarker in breast cancer.

Microneedles integrated with atorvastatin-loaded pumpkisomes for breast cancer therapy: A localized delivery approach

Breast cancer is the most common invasive cancer in women worldwide, having a significant impact on women's well-being. Early diagnosis of breast cancer followed by appropriate treatment is considered the best survival factor. Microneedles (MN) have been utilized for non-invasive localized breast cancer treatment. The combination of nano-carriers with MN technology represents an appealing strategy for improving drug delivery efficacy. It is worth noting that atorvastatin (ATV) has received substantial interest as a drug with potential anticancer activity. Our study aimed to formulate an ATV-loaded bioactive pumpkin seed oil vesicular nanocarrier; pumpkisomes (PUMP) for enhanced localized delivery to breast cancer using MN. The selected PUMP formulation had a particle size of 151.8 ± 2.7 nm, zeta potential of -54.1 mV, and % entrapment efficiency of 73 %. PUMP showed a sustained ATV release, potent selective cytotoxic effect (IC50 of 2.82 ± 0.02 μg/mL), enhanced internalization (2.8-fold increase compared to the free drug), and potent anti-migratory effect on MDA-MB-231 cells (21.15 ± 3.6 % wound closure compared to 80.81 ± 4.1 % for free drug). Moreover, integrating ATV-PUMP in dissolving microneedles (ATV-PUMP@dMN) showed a quick dissolution rate and appropriate mechanical strength with high piercing efficiency. ATV permeation across the skin from ATV-PUMP@dMN was also improved (1.8-fold increase compared to ATV-PUMP@gel). ATV-PUMP@dMN demonstrated an efficient anticancer effect when applied in an Ehrlich ascites mammary tumor model attaining significant improvement in ATV antiproliferative (PTEN and Ki-67), antiangiogenic (VEGF) and apoptotic (Bcl2, Bax and caspase3) effects restoring tumor biomarkers to levels comparable to the negative control group. Thus, our study presents PUMP as a novel and promising bioactive vesicular nanosystem with potential synergistic effect with ATV or other antitumor drugs. PUMP-integrated MN could be considered a promising platform for future applications in localized breast cancer therapy.

Pitavastatin induces autophagy-dependent ferroptosis in MDA-MB-231 cells via the mevalonate pathway

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is more prone to recurrence and metastasis relative to other subtypes of breast cancer, leading to an extremely poor prognosis. The increasing potential chemoresistance of TNBC patients is mainly due to that tumor cells escape from apoptosis. In recent years, statins have demonstrated extensive anti-tumor effects. It is worth noting that statins have more effective anti-tumor effects on TNBC cells and drug-resistant breast cancer cells. Therefore, this study examines the superior cytotoxic effects of statins on TNBC cell lines and further explores their potential therapeutic mechanisms. We detected different cell phenotypes and found that statins significantly reduced the cell viability of TNBC cells. Specifically, pitavastatin showed an obvious induction in cell death, cell cycle arrest and oxidative stress in TNBC MDA-MB-231 cells. The reversal effect of iron chelator desferrioxamine (DFO) on the morphological and molecular biological changes induced by pitavastatin has revealed a new mode of cell death induced by pitavastatin: ferroptosis. This ferroptotic effect was strengthened by the decreased expression of glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPx4) as well as newly discovered ferroptosis suppressor protein 1 (FSP1). The data showed that ferroptotic death of MDA-MB-231 cells is autophagy-dependent and mediated by the mevalonate pathway. Finally, we found that therapeutic oral doses of statins can inhibit the growth of transplanted tumors, which establishes statins as a potential treatment for TNBC patients. In conclusion, we found pitavastatin could induce autophagy-dependent ferroptosis in TNBC cells via the mevalonate pathway which may become a potential adjuvant treatment option for TNBC patients.

The Involvement of Hypoxia in the Response of Neuroblastoma Cells to the Exposure of Atorvastatin

Cancer is a set of complex diseases, being one of the leading causes of death worldwide. Despite a lot of research on the molecular pathways and effective treatments, there are still huge gaps. Indeed, the development of new anti-cancer drugs is a complex process. To face this problem, drug repurposing is being increasingly applied. This approach aims to identify new indications for already approved drugs. In this regard, statins (clinically used for reducing cholesterol levels) are reported to induce anti-cancer effects, particularly by inducing apoptosis and altering the tumor microenvironment. Atorvastatin is a type of statin with several potentialities as an anti-cancer agent, supported by several studies. Our study aimed to explore the effect of this drug in SH-SY5Y human neuroblastoma cells. Additionally, we also aimed to understand how this drug acts under hypoxia and the inhibition of hypoxia-inducible factor-1 (HIF-1). For that purpose, we assessed cellular viability/morphology after exposure to different concentrations of atorvastatin, with or without chemically induced hypoxia with chloride cobalt (CoCl₂) and with or without echinomycin (HIF-1α inhibitor). Our results supported the cytotoxic effects of atorvastatin. Additionally, we also revealed that besides these effects, under hypoxia, this drug induced proliferation of the neuroblastoma cells, supporting the importance of different stimuli and environment on the effect of drugs on cancer cells.