1
|
Nihal S, Sarfo D, Tesfamichael T, Ayoko G, Sonar P, Nihal A, Izake EL. A diverse paper sensor for the rapid determination of nicotine and cotinine traces in air, vaping liquid, and human saliva. Talanta 2025; 292:127929. [PMID: 40081245 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2025.127929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2025] [Revised: 02/24/2025] [Accepted: 03/11/2025] [Indexed: 03/15/2025]
Abstract
The smoking of nicotine and passive exposure to environmental tobacco smoke can lead to many chronic medical conditions such as respiratory, cardiovascular, and cancer diseases. Nicotine smoking can also cause complications for patients undergoing medical procedures. The prevalence of vaping among young people has added a significant challenge to the health care systems as many commercial vaping oils contain undeclared nicotine content, thus leading to nicotine addiction. Governments around the world criminalised the undeclared presence of nicotine in vaping oils. Therefore, there a is strong demand for new materials and sensors that can rapidly detect nicotine/tobacco smoke in vaping products and the environment. Similarly, there is an ongoing need for rapid methods to determine the concentration of the nicotine metabolite, cotinine, in patients prior to medical procedures. To address these needs, we have synthesised and utilised a cost-effective paper sensor for the rapid screening of nicotine and cotinine in vaping the oil, the gas phase, and the human saliva by surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS). The new sensor can detect ultra traces of nicotine and cotinine down to 1 pg/mL and 1 ng/mL respectively, within 20 min. The new sensor can be recycled for repeated screening of nicotine and its metabolite, thus maximizing its economic viability. The was successfully utilised for the detection of nicotine in tobacco smoke and in spiked human saliva by a handheld Raman spectrometer, thus indicating its potential for real-life applications.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Serena Nihal
- School of Chemistry and Physics, Faculty of Science, Queensland University of Technology (QUT), 2 George Street, Brisbane, QLD, 4000, Australia
| | - Daniel Sarfo
- School of Chemistry and Physics, Faculty of Science, Queensland University of Technology (QUT), 2 George Street, Brisbane, QLD, 4000, Australia; Nuclear and Analytical Chemistry Research Centre (NACRC), Ghana Atomic Energy Commission, Accra, Ghana
| | - Tuquabo Tesfamichael
- School of Chemistry and Physics, Faculty of Science, Queensland University of Technology (QUT), 2 George Street, Brisbane, QLD, 4000, Australia; School of Mechanical, Medical & Process Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Queensland University of Technology (QUT), 2 George Street, Brisbane, QLD, 4000, Australia; Centre for Materials Science, Queensland University of Technology (QUT), 2 George Street, Brisbane, QLD, 4000, Australia
| | - Godwin Ayoko
- School of Chemistry and Physics, Faculty of Science, Queensland University of Technology (QUT), 2 George Street, Brisbane, QLD, 4000, Australia; Centre for Materials Science, Queensland University of Technology (QUT), 2 George Street, Brisbane, QLD, 4000, Australia
| | - Prashant Sonar
- School of Chemistry and Physics, Faculty of Science, Queensland University of Technology (QUT), 2 George Street, Brisbane, QLD, 4000, Australia; Centre for Materials Science, Queensland University of Technology (QUT), 2 George Street, Brisbane, QLD, 4000, Australia
| | - Aneel Nihal
- The Gold Coast Foot & Ankle Specialist Clinic, Pindara Private Hospital, 29 Carrara Steet, Benowa, QLD, 4217, Australia
| | - Emad L Izake
- School of Chemistry and Physics, Faculty of Science, Queensland University of Technology (QUT), 2 George Street, Brisbane, QLD, 4000, Australia; Centre for Materials Science, Queensland University of Technology (QUT), 2 George Street, Brisbane, QLD, 4000, Australia; Centre for Biomedical Technology, Queensland University of Technology (QUT), 2 George Street, Brisbane, QLD, 4000, Australia.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Muta H, Noda T. Survey of Secondhand Smoke for 3-Year-Old Children in the Current Era of New Tobacco Products. Acta Paediatr 2025; 114:1405-1413. [PMID: 39821910 DOI: 10.1111/apa.17584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2024] [Revised: 10/20/2024] [Accepted: 01/07/2025] [Indexed: 01/19/2025]
Abstract
AIM To investigate children's exposure to secondhand smoke and aerosols in the current era of new tobacco products. METHODS A total of 200 children were recruited from among children who had undergone health checkups for 3-year-olds at the clinic. We investigated the smoking status of their families using a questionnaire and measured urinary cotinine concentrations in their children. The children were divided into four groups based on their families' smoking status: no smokers (n = 114), exclusive combustion cigarette smokers (n = 35), both combustion cigarette and heated tobacco product smokers (n = 12) and exclusive heated tobacco product smokers (n = 39). RESULTS Of the 200 children, 53 (26.5%) had detectable urinary cotinine levels. Of these, 12 (6.0%) were classified as having heavy exposure to secondhand smoke (urinary cotinine concentration ≥ 5 ng/mL). Urinary cotinine concentrations among children living with exclusive heated tobacco product smokers were significantly lower than those among children living with exclusive combustion cigarette smokers, but higher than those in children whose family members did not smoke at all. Relative to exclusive combustion cigarette smokers, exclusive heated tobacco product smokers were significantly more likely to smoke indoors. CONCLUSIONS Secondhand aerosol exposure from heated tobacco products may be reduced but cannot be completely eliminated.
Collapse
|
3
|
Kataoka H, Miyata S, Ehara K. Simultaneous Determination of Tobacco Smoke Exposure and Stress Biomarkers in Saliva Using In-Tube SPME and LC-MS/MS for the Analysis of the Association between Passive Smoking and Stress. Molecules 2024; 29:4157. [PMID: 39275005 PMCID: PMC11397470 DOI: 10.3390/molecules29174157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2024] [Revised: 08/24/2024] [Accepted: 08/31/2024] [Indexed: 09/16/2024] Open
Abstract
Passive smoking from environmental tobacco smoke not only increases the risk of lung cancer and cardiovascular disease but may also be a stressor triggering neuropsychiatric and other disorders. To prevent these diseases, understanding the relationship between passive smoking and stress is vital. In this study, we developed a simple and sensitive method to simultaneously measure nicotine (Nic) and cotinine (Cot) as tobacco smoke exposure biomarkers, and cortisol (CRT), serotonin (5-HT), melatonin (MEL), dopamine (DA), and oxytocin (OXT) as stress-related biomarkers. These were extracted and concentrated from saliva by in-tube solid-phase microextraction (IT-SPME) using a Supel-Q PLOT capillary as the extraction device, then separated and detected within 6 min by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) using a Kinetex Biphenyl column (Phenomenex Inc., Torrance, CA, USA). Limits of detection (S/N = 3) for Nic, Cot, CRT, 5-HT, MEL, DA, and OXT were 0.22, 0.12, 0.78, 0.39, 0.45, 1.4, and 3.7 pg mL-1, respectively, with linearity of calibration curves in the range of 0.01-25 ng mL-1 using stable isotope-labeled internal standards. Intra- and inter-day reproducibilities were under 7.9% and 14.6% (n = 5) relative standard deviations, and compound recoveries in spiked saliva samples ranged from 82.1 to 106.6%. In thirty nonsmokers, Nic contents positively correlated with CRT contents (R2 = 0.5264, n = 30), while no significant correlation was found with other biomarkers. The standard deviation of intervals between normal beats as the standard measure of heart rate variability analysis negatively correlated with CRT contents (R2 = 0.5041, n = 30). After passive smoke exposure, Nic levels transiently increased, Cot and CRT levels rose over time, and 5-HT, DA, and OXT levels decreased. These results indicate tobacco smoke exposure acts as a stressor in nonsmokers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hiroyuki Kataoka
- School of Pharmacy, Shujitsu University, Okayama 703-8516, Japan
| | - Saori Miyata
- School of Pharmacy, Shujitsu University, Okayama 703-8516, Japan
| | - Kentaro Ehara
- School of Pharmacy, Shujitsu University, Okayama 703-8516, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Salivary Carbohydrate-Deficient Transferrin in Alcohol- and Nicotine-Dependent Males. J Clin Med 2020; 9:jcm9124054. [PMID: 33334005 PMCID: PMC7765464 DOI: 10.3390/jcm9124054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2020] [Revised: 12/05/2020] [Accepted: 12/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Serum carbohydrate-deficient transferrin (CDT), an 80 kDa glycoprotein, is one of the most commonly employed biomarkers to detect alcohol dependence. Some salivary glycoproteins such as α-amylase, clusterin, haptoglobin, light/heavy-chain immunoglobulin, and transferrin, which alter glycosylation in alcohol-dependent persons, have been suggested to be potential alcohol markers. However, their identification is based on indirect analysis of lectin glycosidic bonds and molecular weight. We investigated the CDT content in the saliva of alcohol- and nicotine-dependent men. The CDT concentration (ng/mL, ng/mg protein) was determined by an Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) commercial kit in 55 men: 20 healthy social drinkers (C), 10 chronic cigarette smokers (S), 10 alcohol-dependent non-smokers (A), and 15 alcohol-dependent smokers (AS). Surprisingly, there were no differences in the concentrations of CDT between the studied groups. Salivary pH was the lowest in the AS and the highest in the A group. Therefore, salivary CDT cannot be used as an alcohol dependence marker as measured by ELISA. We suggest that direct identification of glycoproteins is necessary to search for potential salivary alcohol biomarkers. Molecules smaller than 40 kDa, which easily translocate from blood to the saliva, might be preferred as salivary alcohol markers.
Collapse
|
5
|
Fernandes AG, Santos LN, Pinheiro GP, da Silva Vasconcellos D, de Oliva ST, Fernandes BJ, Couto RD. Urinary Cotinine as a Biomarker of Cigarette Smoke Exposure: A Method to Differentiate Among Active, Second-Hand, and Non-Smoker Circumstances. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2020. [DOI: 10.2174/1875318302010010060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Objective:
To review the literature on the use of urinary cotinine as a biological marker of cigarette smoke exposure.
Methods:
Narrative review of original and review articles on the topic of interest, published in Portuguese or English by June 2018, and selected in the following online databases: PubMed and Virtual Health Library (VHL).
Results:
Urinary cotinine is usually the recommended biomarker to estimate exposure to cigarette smoke, and can be used alone or, preferably, in association with questionnaires. Different analytical techniques can be used to quantify urinary cotinine and are differently performed because of urine sample interfering factors.
Conclusion:
The precise classification of smoking status is essential. It is advisable to use objective measurements regarding smoking habits since self-reported smoking may not always represent the true smoking status of the individual, particularly in groups that are more vulnerable to omitting the information of questionnaries, in addition, it has possible biases of memory. The accurate assessment of smoking is crucial to improve clinical management and counseling for different diseases as well as the establishment of preventive strategies. So, the use of urinary cotinine as a biomarker of cigarette smoke exposure seems to be a suitable assay to distinguish non-smokers from passive and active smokers.
Collapse
|
6
|
Mahabee-Gittens EM, Mazzella MJ, Doucette JT, Merianos AL, Stone L, Wullenweber CA, A. Busgang S, Matt GE. Comparison of Liquid Chromatography Mass Spectrometry and Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay Methods to Measure Salivary Cotinine Levels in Ill Children. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:E1157. [PMID: 32059566 PMCID: PMC7068296 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17041157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2019] [Revised: 02/04/2020] [Accepted: 02/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Objective: Cotinine is the preferred biomarker to validate levels of tobacco smoke exposure (TSE) in children. Compared to enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay methods (ELISA) for quantifying cotinine in saliva, the use of liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) has higher sensitivity and specificity to measure very low levels of TSE. We sought to compare LC-MS/MS and ELISA measures of cotinine in saliva samples from children overall and the associations of these measures with demographics and TSE patterns. Method: Participants were nonsmoking children (N = 218; age mean (SD) = 6.1 (5.1) years) presenting to a pediatric emergency department. Saliva samples were analyzed for cotinine using both LC-MS/MS and ELISA. Limit of quantitation (LOQ) for LC-MS/MS and ELISA was 0.1 ng/ml and 0.15 ng/ml, respectively. Results: Intraclass correlations (ICC) across methods = 0.884 and was consistent in sex and age subgroups. The geometric mean (GeoM) of LC-MS/MS = 4.1 (range: < LOQ - 382 ng/mL; 3% < LOQ) which was lower (p < 0.0001) than the ELISA GeoM = 5.7 (range: < LOQ - 364 ng/mL; 5% < LOQ). Similar associations of cotinine concentrations with age ( < -0.10, p < 0.0001), demographic characteristics (e.g., income), and number of cigarettes smoked by caregiver ( > 0.07, p < 0.0001) were found regardless of cotinine detection method; however, cotinine associations with sex and race/ethnicity were only found to be significant in models using LC-MS/MS-derived cotinine. Conclusions: Utilizing LC-MS/MS-based cotinine, associations of cotinine with sex and race/ethnicity of child were revealed that were not detectable using ELISA-based cotinine, demonstrating the benefits of utilizing the more sensitive LC-MS/MS assay for cotinine measurement when detecting low levels of TSE in children.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- E. Melinda Mahabee-Gittens
- Division of Emergency Medicine, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA; (L.S.); (C.A.W.)
| | - Matthew J. Mazzella
- Department of Environmental Medicine and Public Health, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA; (M.J.M.); (J.T.D.); (S.A.B.)
| | - John T. Doucette
- Department of Environmental Medicine and Public Health, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA; (M.J.M.); (J.T.D.); (S.A.B.)
| | - Ashley L. Merianos
- School of Human Services, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45221, USA;
| | - Lara Stone
- Division of Emergency Medicine, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA; (L.S.); (C.A.W.)
| | - Chase A. Wullenweber
- Division of Emergency Medicine, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA; (L.S.); (C.A.W.)
| | - Stefanie A. Busgang
- Department of Environmental Medicine and Public Health, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA; (M.J.M.); (J.T.D.); (S.A.B.)
| | - Georg E. Matt
- Department of Psychology, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA 92123, USA;
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Sharma P, Sane N, Anand SD, Marimutthu P, Benegal V. Assessment of cotinine in urine and saliva of smokers, passive smokers, and nonsmokers: Method validation using liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry. Indian J Psychiatry 2019; 61:270-276. [PMID: 31142905 PMCID: PMC6532461 DOI: 10.4103/psychiatry.indianjpsychiatry_61_18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Self-report does not provide complete information about tobacco smoke exposure among users and is not relevant for secondhand exposure detection. Biochemical screening for primary metabolite of nicotine would be useful to validate the smoking status and exposure to secondhand smoke. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES This study was designed to evaluate the performance of a sensitive and rapid method to verify smoking status among smokers, passive smokers, and nonsmokers by quantification of cotinine in saliva and urine using liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry. MATERIALS AND METHODS Cotinine (urine and saliva) levels were measured in 98 participants out of which active users (smoked tobacco users; n = 56) and persons exposed to tobacco smoke (passive smokers; n = 15). Values obtained were compared with nonusers (nonsmokers; n = 27). A simple, rapid, and sensitive method was developed and validated for this purpose. With minimal sample preparation, the current analytical procedure showed a wide detection range (1.1-1000 ng/mL) which made it suitable for analyzing various biological matrices. RESULTS The mean cotinine levels of urine for smokers, passive smokers, and nonsmokers were 1043.7, 36.63, and 13.6 ng/ml, respectively, while in saliva, it was 327.39, 18.31, and 9.53 ng/ml, respectively. CONCLUSION Analysis of variance showed that cotinine levels (urine and saliva) of smokers were significantly higher levels than passive smokers and nonsmokers (P < 0.01). Similarly, passive smokers also had significantly higher cotinine levels (urine and saliva) than nonsmokers (P < 0.001).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Priyamvada Sharma
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
| | - Niharika Sane
- Department of Psychiatry, Centre for Addiction Medicine, National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
| | - Shravanthi D Anand
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
| | - P Marimutthu
- Department of Biostatics, National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
| | - Vivek Benegal
- Department of Psychiatry, Centre for Addiction Medicine, National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Ramdzan AN, Almeida MIG, McCullough MJ, Segundo MA, Kolev SD. Determination of salivary cotinine as tobacco smoking biomarker. Trends Analyt Chem 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2018.04.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
|
9
|
Mokeem SA, Alasqah MN, Michelogiannakis D, Al-Kheraif AA, Romanos GE, Javed F. Clinical and radiographic periodontal status and whole salivary cotinine, IL-1β and IL-6 levels in cigarette- and waterpipe-smokers and E-cig users. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND PHARMACOLOGY 2018; 61:38-43. [PMID: 29843053 DOI: 10.1016/j.etap.2018.05.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2018] [Revised: 05/21/2018] [Accepted: 05/22/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The aim was to compare the clinical (plaque index [PI], bleeding on probing [BOP], probing pocket depth [PPD] and clinical attachment loss [CAL]) and radiographic (marginal bone loss [MBL]) periodontal parameters and whole salivary cotinine, interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-6 levels among cigarette-smokers, waterpipe-smokers, E-cig users and never-smokers. In total, 154 male individuals (39 cigarette-smokers, 40 waterpipe-smokers, 37 E-cig users and 38 never-smokers) were included. Full mouth PI, BOP, PPD and CAL were measured on all teeth (excluding third molars); and MBL was measured in digital intra-oral radiographs. Unstimulated whole salivary flow rate (UWSFR) and whole salivary cotinine, IL-1β and IL-6 levels were measured. Group comparisons were performed using one way analysis of variance and Bonferroni post-hoc tests. P-values less than 0.05 were considered statistically significant. There was no difference in UWSFR among the groups. Cotinine levels were significantly higher among cigarette- (P < 0.001) and waterpipe-smokers (P < 0.001) and E-cig users (P < 0.001) than never-smokers. IL-1β (P < 0.01) and IL-6 (P < 0.01) levels were significantly higher among cigarette- and waterpipe-smokers than E-cig users and never-smokers. There was no difference in PPD, CAL, mesial and distal MBL and whole salivary IL-1β and IL-6 levels among E-cig users and never-smokers. In conclusion, clinical and radiographic parameters of periodontal inflammation were poorer in cigarette and waterpipe smokers than E-cig users and never-smokers; and whole salivary cotinine levels were similar in all groups. Whole salivary IL-1β and IL-6 levels were higher in cigarette- and waterpipe-smokers than E-cig users and never-smokers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sameer A Mokeem
- Department of Periodontics and Community Dentistry, College of Dentistry, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mohammed N Alasqah
- Department of Preventive Dental Sciences, College of Dentistry, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, Alkharj, Saudi Arabia
| | - Dimitrios Michelogiannakis
- Departments of Community Dentistry and Oral Disease Prevention, Eastman Institute for Oral Health, University of Rochester, NY, USA; Department of Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics, Eastman Institute for Oral Health, University of Rochester, NY, USA
| | - Abdulaziz A Al-Kheraif
- Dental Health Department, College of Applied Medical Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
| | - Georgios E Romanos
- Department of Periodontology, School of Dental Medicine, Stony Brook University, NY, USA; Oral Surgery and Implant Dentistry, Dental School, Johann Wolfgang Goethe, University of Frankfurt, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Fawad Javed
- Department of General Dentistry, Eastman Institute for Oral Health, University of Rochester, NY, USA
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Andersen AM, Philibert RA, Gibbons FX, Simons RL, Long J. Accuracy and utility of an epigenetic biomarker for smoking in populations with varying rates of false self-report. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 2017; 174:641-650. [PMID: 28816414 PMCID: PMC5653254 DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.b.32555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2017] [Accepted: 05/05/2017] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Better biomarkers to detect smoking are needed given the tremendous public health burden caused by smoking. Current biomarkers to detect smoking have significant limitations, notably a short half-life for detection and lack of sensitivity for light smokers. These limitations may be particularly problematic in populations with less accurate self-reporting. Prior epigenome-wide association studies indicate that methylation status at cg05575921, a CpG residue located in the aryl hydrocarbon receptor repressor (AHRR) gene, may be a robust indicator of smoking status in individuals with as little as half of a pack-year of smoking. In this study, we show that a novel droplet digital PCR assay for measuring methylation at cg05575921 can reliably detect smoking status, as confirmed by serum cotinine, in populations with different demographic characteristics, smoking histories, and rates of false-negative self-report of smoking behavior. Using logistic regression models, we show that obtaining maximum accuracy in predicting smoking status depends on appropriately weighting self-report and cg05575921 methylation according to the characteristics of the sample being tested. Furthermore, models using only cg05575921 methylation to predict smoking perform nearly as well as those also including self-report across populations. In conclusion, cg05575921 has significant potential as a clinical biomarker to detect smoking in populations with varying rates of accuracy in self-report of smoking behavior.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Allan M. Andersen
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA 52242,To whom correspondence should be addressed: Department of Psychiatry, Rm 2-219 MEB, 500 Newton Road, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA; phone 319-353-4537
| | - Robert A. Philibert
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA 52242,Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA 52242,Behavioral Diagnostics, Coralville IA 52241
| | - Fredrick X. Gibbons
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269
| | - Ronald L. Simons
- Department of Sociology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602
| | - Jeffrey Long
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA 52242,Department of Biostatistics, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA USA 52242
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Oyama H, Morita I, Kiguchi Y, Banzono E, Ishii K, Kubo S, Watanabe Y, Hirai A, Kaede C, Ohta M, Kobayashi N. One-Shot In Vitro Evolution Generated an Antibody Fragment for Testing Urinary Cotinine with More Than 40-Fold Enhanced Affinity. Anal Chem 2016; 89:988-995. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.6b04332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Hiroyuki Oyama
- Kobe Pharmaceutical University, 4-19-1, Motoyama-Kitamachi, Higashinada-ku, Kobe 658-8558, Japan
| | - Izumi Morita
- Kobe Pharmaceutical University, 4-19-1, Motoyama-Kitamachi, Higashinada-ku, Kobe 658-8558, Japan
| | - Yuki Kiguchi
- Kobe Pharmaceutical University, 4-19-1, Motoyama-Kitamachi, Higashinada-ku, Kobe 658-8558, Japan
| | - Erika Banzono
- Kobe Pharmaceutical University, 4-19-1, Motoyama-Kitamachi, Higashinada-ku, Kobe 658-8558, Japan
| | - Kasumi Ishii
- Kobe Pharmaceutical University, 4-19-1, Motoyama-Kitamachi, Higashinada-ku, Kobe 658-8558, Japan
| | - Satoshi Kubo
- Kobe Pharmaceutical University, 4-19-1, Motoyama-Kitamachi, Higashinada-ku, Kobe 658-8558, Japan
| | - Yoshiro Watanabe
- Kobe Pharmaceutical University, 4-19-1, Motoyama-Kitamachi, Higashinada-ku, Kobe 658-8558, Japan
| | - Anna Hirai
- Kobe Pharmaceutical University, 4-19-1, Motoyama-Kitamachi, Higashinada-ku, Kobe 658-8558, Japan
| | - Chiaki Kaede
- Kobe Pharmaceutical University, 4-19-1, Motoyama-Kitamachi, Higashinada-ku, Kobe 658-8558, Japan
| | - Mitsuhiro Ohta
- Kobe Pharmaceutical University, 4-19-1, Motoyama-Kitamachi, Higashinada-ku, Kobe 658-8558, Japan
| | - Norihiro Kobayashi
- Kobe Pharmaceutical University, 4-19-1, Motoyama-Kitamachi, Higashinada-ku, Kobe 658-8558, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Davis MC, Broadwater DR, Amburgy JW, Harrigan MR. The clinical significance and reliability of self-reported smoking status in patients with intracranial aneurysms: A review. Clin Neurol Neurosurg 2015; 137:44-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.clineuro.2015.06.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2015] [Revised: 06/14/2015] [Accepted: 06/23/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
|
13
|
Ino T, Kurosawa K. Screening for secondhand smoke in schoolchildren in Japan. Pediatr Int 2015; 57:961-7. [PMID: 25808130 DOI: 10.1111/ped.12630] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2014] [Revised: 02/03/2015] [Accepted: 02/19/2015] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND There is no systematic screening for secondhand smoke exposure in children. METHODS In 2002, we began a secondhand smoke screening (SSS) program for grade 4 elementary schoolchildren with the cooperation of public administration. The SSS program consisted of urinary cotinine measurement in children and a questionnaire survey of their parents. RESULTS More than 1200 schoolchildren were enrolled in this program annually. The level of urinary cotinine in 30% of the children was >5 ng/mL, whereas in half of them it was undetectable. The major risk factor affecting cotinine level was mother's smoking. Average cotinine was significantly high in children who had a history of "short stature", "decayed tooth and/or periodontal disease," and "frequent stridor". In addition, the highest level of cotinine was detected in children whose father and/or mother smoked in the living room and the lowest level of cotinine was detected in children whose father and/or mother smoked on the veranda or outside the door. These levels, however, were two-fivefold higher than in children whose parents did not smoke. On follow-up questionnaire survey 4 years after initial SSS, significant elevated motivation for smoking cessation was noted. CONCLUSIONS The SSS program is a very simple mass screen that can be done using only a urine test and is very effective for motivating parents to stop smoking with regard to cost benefit.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Toshihiro Ino
- Gunma Paz College, Faculty of Health Science, Takasaki, Gunma.,Ino Clinic, Kumagaya, Saitama, Japan
| | - Kazuo Kurosawa
- Gunma Paz College, Faculty of Health Science, Takasaki, Gunma
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Suzuki S, Sato K, Watanabe H, Nezu Y, Nishimuta T. Environmental tobacco exposure is associated with vaccine modified measles in junior high school students. J Med Virol 2015; 87:1853-9. [PMID: 25959288 DOI: 10.1002/jmv.24252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/25/2015] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Vaccine modified measles (VMM) affects individuals with attenuated vaccine induced immunity. An outbreak of measles occurred in a junior high school, starting from an unvaccinated eighth-grade student who developed natural measles and affected a majority of students who were immunized with a low potent strain of measles vaccine (TD97). To determine whether environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) exposure was associated with the development of VMM in this population, a questionnaire was used asking whether students had VMM symptoms during the outbreak and the smoking status of family members. VMM was defined in the study population as occurrence of fever and/or erythema, along with documented history of measles vaccination. A total of 513 students (85.9%) responded. Overall, the presence of in-house smokers did not differ between VMM students (49.3%) and non-VMM students (50.2%). However, in the ninth grade, presence of an in-house smoker was significantly higher in the family of VMM students (54.0%) than in non-VMM students (36.6%) (P = 0.044). Urinary cotinine levels were also measured in selected students (n = 37). Among families with at least one smoker, urinary cotinine levels were significantly higher in VMM students than in non-VMM students (P = 0.032). Furthermore, a multivariable logistic regression analysis showed that a high urinary cotinine level (>10 ng/mg creatinine; 13.5 percentile) was associated with the development of VMM. Our findings suggest that a high level of ETS exposure may be associated with an increased risk of VMM in a population with attenuated vaccine induced immunity against measles.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shuichi Suzuki
- Department of Pediatrics, Shimoshizu National Hospital, Yotsukaido, Japan
| | - Kazuki Sato
- Department of Pediatrics, Shimoshizu National Hospital, Yotsukaido, Japan
| | - Hiroko Watanabe
- Department of Pediatrics, Shimoshizu National Hospital, Yotsukaido, Japan
| | - Yoko Nezu
- Department of Pediatrics, Shimoshizu National Hospital, Yotsukaido, Japan
| | | |
Collapse
|
15
|
Brown L, Rider NL, Lirette DK, Diaz JH. Response to detection limit and statistical results. Nicotine Tob Res 2014; 16:1533. [PMID: 25301866 DOI: 10.1093/ntr/ntu130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Lisanne Brown
- Evaluation and Research, Louisiana Public Health Institute, New Orleans, LA;
| | - Nikki L Rider
- Research and Evaluation, National Network of Public Health Institutes, New Orleans, LA
| | | | - James H Diaz
- School of Public Health and School of Medicine-New Orleans, Louisiana State University Health Science Center, New Orleans, LA
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Yamaya Y, Sugiya H, Watari T. Tobacco exposure increased airway limitation in dogs with chronic cough. Vet Rec 2013; 174:18. [PMID: 24285008 PMCID: PMC3913206 DOI: 10.1136/vr.101810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Y Yamaya
- Laboratory of Comprehensive Veterinary Clinical Studies, Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Bioresource Sciences, Nihon University, Kameino 1866, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, Japan
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
17
|
Stragierowicz J, Mikołajewska K, Zawadzka-Stolarz M, Polańska K, Ligocka D. Estimation of cutoff values of cotinine in urine and saliva for pregnant women in Poland. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2013; 2013:386784. [PMID: 24228246 PMCID: PMC3818804 DOI: 10.1155/2013/386784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2013] [Accepted: 09/16/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Setting appropriate cutoff values and the use of a highly sensitive analytical method allow for correct classification of the smoking status. Urine-saliva pairs samples of pregnant women in the second and third trimester, and saliva only in the first trimester were collected. Offline SPE and LC-ESI-MS/MS method was developed in the broad concentration range (saliva 0.4-1000 ng/mL, urine 0.8-4000 ng/mL). The mean recoveries were 3.7 ± 7.6% for urine and 99.1 ± 2.6% for saliva. LOD for saliva was 0.12 ng/mL and for urine 0.05 ng/mL; LOQ was 0.4 ng/mL and 0.8 ng/mL, respectively. Intraday and interday precision equaled, respectively, 1.2% and 3.4% for urine, and 2.3% and 6.4% for saliva. There was a strong correlation between salivary cotinine and the uncorrected cotinine concentration in urine in the second and third trimesters of pregnancy. The cutoff values were established for saliva 12.9 ng/mL and urine 42.3 ng/mL or 53.1 μg/g creatinine with the ROC curve analysis. The developed analytical method was successfully applied to quantify cotinine, and a significant correlation between the urinary and salivary cotinine levels was found. The presented cut-off values for salivary and urinary cotinine ensure a categorization of the smoking status among pregnant women that is more accurate than self-reporting.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Joanna Stragierowicz
- Department of Toxicology and Carcinogenesis, Nofer Institute of Occupational Medicine, 8 Teresy Street, 91-348 Lodz, Poland
| | - Karolina Mikołajewska
- Department of Toxicology and Carcinogenesis, Nofer Institute of Occupational Medicine, 8 Teresy Street, 91-348 Lodz, Poland
| | | | - Kinga Polańska
- Department of Environmental Epidemiology, Nofer Institute of Occupational Medicine, 8 Teresy Street, 91-348 Lodz, Poland
| | - Danuta Ligocka
- Department of Toxicology and Carcinogenesis, Nofer Institute of Occupational Medicine, 8 Teresy Street, 91-348 Lodz, Poland
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
IWAI MASAE, OGAWA TADASHI, HATTORI HIDEKI, ZAITSU KEI, ISHII AKIRA, SUZUKI OSAMU, SENO HIROSHI. Simple and rapid assay method for simultaneous quantification of urinary nicotine and cotinine using micro-extraction by packed sorbent and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. NAGOYA JOURNAL OF MEDICAL SCIENCE 2013; 75:255-61. [PMID: 24640182 PMCID: PMC4345675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
A simple and rapid method for determination of nicotine and cotinine levels in urine was developed using samples prepared by micro-extraction by packed sorbent (MEPS) and subjected to gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis. This method provided good reproducibility, as well as good linearity of calibration curves in the range of 1-100 and 50-1000 ng/mL for quality control samples spiked with nicotine and cotinine, respectively. The detection limit of nicotine and cotinine was as low as 0.25 and 20 ng/mL, respectively. An evaporation procedure is not suitable for nicotine determination, thus an advantage of the present MEPS assay method is direct testing with GC-MS without the need for evaporation to a dry solvent. Our findings show that it may be useful for determining nicotine levels in various types of research studies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- MASAE IWAI
- Department of Legal Medicine, Aichi Medical University School of Medicine, Nagakute, Japan
| | - TADASHI OGAWA
- Department of Legal Medicine, Aichi Medical University School of Medicine, Nagakute, Japan
| | - HIDEKI HATTORI
- Department of Legal Medicine, Aichi Medical University School of Medicine, Nagakute, Japan
| | - KEI ZAITSU
- Department of Legal Medicine and Bioethics, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan
| | - AKIRA ISHII
- Department of Legal Medicine and Bioethics, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan
| | - OSAMU SUZUKI
- Department of Legal Medicine, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, Hamamatsu, Japan
| | - HIROSHI SENO
- Department of Legal Medicine, Aichi Medical University School of Medicine, Nagakute, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Hazeki N, Kobayashi K, Shinke H, Yamamoto M, Ohta M, Nishimura Y. Semipermeable membrane dressings can be used with the nicotine transdermal system and do not interfere with nicotine absorption. Intern Med 2013; 52:2743-8. [PMID: 24334578 DOI: 10.2169/internalmedicine.52.0423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Adverse skin reactions as a local side effect of nicotine patches sometimes interfere with smoking cessation therapy. We studied the effects of semipermeable membrane dressings (SMD) used under nicotine patches (NP) on nicotine absorption, as assessed according to the urinary cotinine levels, and skin symptoms. METHODS First, the urinary cotinine levels were compared in eight nonsmokers that applied NP over SMD and NP without SMD (Study 1). The urinary cotinine levels were measured using a highly sensitive competitive enzyme immunoassay. Second, 28 subjects undergoing NP therapy for diagnosed nicotine dependence were randomly assigned into two groups in a crossover design to receive NP over SMD and NP without SMD. The urinary cotinine levels and skin symptoms were compared between the two treatment groups. During the follow-up period of 48 weeks, the smoking cessation rate was evaluated (Study 2). RESULTS No statistical differences were observed in the urinary cotinine levels between the NP over SMD and NP without SMD groups. In Study 2, the skin symptoms improved with the use of SMD in 42.8% (6/14) of the patients and worsened in 28.5% (4/14) of the patients. No serious skin disorders were reported. The subjects followed in Study 2 exhibited smoking cessation rates of 92.8%, 78.5% and 64.2% at 12, 24 and 48 weeks, respectively. CONCLUSION The use of NP over SMD is a safe and effective alternative application to NP treatment for preventing the skin symptoms caused by NP without interfering with nicotine absorption.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nobuko Hazeki
- Division of Respiratory Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Kobe University Hospital, Japan
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
20
|
Simultaneous measurement of urinary total nicotine and cotinine as biomarkers of active and passive smoking among Japanese individuals. Environ Health Prev Med 2012; 18:244-50. [PMID: 23011941 DOI: 10.1007/s12199-012-0307-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2012] [Accepted: 09/05/2012] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Measuring urinary cotinine is a popular and established method of biologically monitoring exposure to tobacco smoke. However, the lower detection limit of cotinine often impedes the evaluation of passive (second-hand) smoking and this, together with unconverted nicotine, does not reflect actual levels of exposure. Furthermore, a portion of the Japanese population might have decreased ability to metabolize nicotine. The present study was therefore carried out to validate the simultaneous analysis of total concentrations of free nicotine and cotinine and their glucuronides to determine actual levels of voluntary and involuntary exposure to cigarette smoke. METHODS Urine samples from 118 Japanese smokers and 117 non-smokers were analyzed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Voluntary and involuntary smoking status was self-reported and workplace smoking restrictions were objectively evaluated. RESULTS The integrated sum of all concentrations showed 2.2- and 2.4-fold higher total levels (free and glucuronide) of nicotine and cotinine relative to the free levels. Median (quartiles) of total nicotine and cotinine were 1635 (2222) and 3948 (3512) ng/mL in smokers, and 3.5 (5.3) and 2.8 (4.2) ng/mL in non-smokers. Concentrations of urinary nicotine were higher than those of cotinine in 21 % of smokers and in 54 % of non-smokers. Nicotine and cotinine levels were significantly associated with a smoking habit, as well as being significantly associated with the workplace and home environments of non-smokers. CONCLUSIONS The present method can monitor voluntary and involuntary exposure to tobacco smoke. Measuring total urinary nicotine levels might be useful for analyzing exposure to cigarette smoke among non-smokers.
Collapse
|
21
|
Kuhn J, Vollmer T, Martin C, Hendig D, Knabbe C. Fast and sample cleanup-free measurement of nicotine and cotinine by stable isotope dilution ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2012; 67-68:137-43. [PMID: 22608097 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2012.04.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2012] [Revised: 04/24/2012] [Accepted: 04/25/2012] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
We developed a stable isotope dilution ultra-performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry assay to measure nicotine and cotinine, the major oxidative and pharmacologically less active metabolite of nicotine, in human urine. A simple dilution step was used as sample preparation and the measurement of nicotine and cotinine was performed during a 1.5-min run-time using nicotine-D₄ and cotinine-D₄ as internal standards. Multiple calibration curves for the analysis of both nicotine and cotinine exhibited a consistent excellent linearity and reproducibility in the range of 5-35,000 μg/L (r>0.999). Limits of Detection were 0.7 μg/L for nicotine and 0.4 μg/L for cotinine, and Lower Limits of Quantification were 1.7 μg/L for nicotine and 1.1 μg/L for cotinine. The intraassay coefficients of variation (CVs) for nicotine and cotinine were <4% and <2%, respectively, the interassay CVs were <6% for nicotine and <4% for cotinine. The inaccuracy was <6% for both substances. The mean recovery was 103.2% (range 96.8-105.1%) for nicotine and 97.4% (range 94.3-99.2%) for cotinine. A method comparison showed that the values of nicotine metabolites in human urine samples (n=98) measured by a commercially available chemiluminescent immunoassay tested on analyzer IMMULITE 2000 were much higher than the cotinine concentration in the same urine samples measured by our UPLC-MS/MS assay. The Passing-Bablok regression line was: immunoassay=4.62 (UPLC-MS/MS)+3.64 [μg/L]; r=0.75. This robust, sensitive and interference-free UPLC-MS/MS assay permits rapid and accurate determination of nicotine and cotinine in human urine.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Joachim Kuhn
- Institut für Laboratoriums- und Transfusionsmedizin, Herz- und Diabeteszentrum Nordrhein-Westfalen, Universitätsklinik der Ruhr-Universität Bochum, 32545 Bad Oeynhausen, Germany.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
22
|
Sasaki S, Braimoh TS, Yila TA, Yoshioka E, Kishi R. Self-reported tobacco smoke exposure and plasma cotinine levels during pregnancy--a validation study in Northern Japan. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2011; 412-413:114-118. [PMID: 22078365 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2011.10.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2011] [Revised: 10/12/2011] [Accepted: 10/13/2011] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Maternal smoking is a critical public health concern requiring the establishment of its prevalence rate and clinical impact. Maternal self-reported information of tobacco smoke exposure requires validation using accurate biochemical analysis. This study examined the association between self-reported exposure to tobacco smoke and plasma cotinine level in Japanese pregnant women. We collected information about smoking and secondhand smoke (SHS) exposure during pregnancy from 5128 pregnant women in a prospective cohort design, and analyzed biochemically maternal blood samples using the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) technique. Based on self-reports, the subjects were classified into three groups: 650 smokers, 728 ex-smokers and 3750 non-smokers. Using the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve, plasma cotinine cut-off value of 11.48 ng/mL was established for separating smokers from non-smokers, resulting in a smoking prevalence of 14%. A cotinine cut-off value of 0.21 ng/mL for discriminating exposed and unexposed nonsmokers resulted in a 63% prevalence of exposure to tobacco smoke among nonsmokers. Cotinine biomarker analysis proved accurate in validating self-reported smoking information in the subjects. Lower validity of SHS exposure suggests a need to confirm questionnaire information with biochemical analysis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Seiko Sasaki
- Department of Public Health, Hokkaido University Graduate School of Medicine, North 15 West 7, Sapporo 060-8638, Japan
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|