Genetic predisposition to inflammation: a new risk factor of Alzheimer's disease

Research progress on the role of ginsenoside Rd in central nervous system diseases

Ginsenoside Rd (GSRd) is one of the rare saponin monomers extracted from ginseng. Most importantly, GSRd could effectively cross the intact blood-brain barrier (BBB). Studies have shown that it plays an important role in the treatment of neurological diseases such as ischemic stroke (IS), spinal cord injury (SCI), Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Parkinson's disease (PD). The results of these studies are of great significance for the clinical application of GSRd in the treatment in neurological diseases. This article reviewed the protective effects of GSRd in central nervous system diseases and analysed the related mechanism.

Alzheimer’s Disease and Tau Self-Assembly: In the Search of the Missing Link

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a multifactorial neurodegenerative disease characterized by progressive cognitive impairment, apathy, and neuropsychiatric disorders. Two main pathological hallmarks have been described: neurofibrillary tangles, consisting of tau oligomers (hyperphosphorylated tau) and Aβ plaques. The influence of protein kinases and phosphatases on the hyperphosphorylation of tau is already known. Hyperphosphorylated tau undergoes conformational changes that promote its self-assembly. However, the process involving these mechanisms is yet to be elucidated. In vitro recombinant tau can be aggregated by the action of polyanions, such as heparin, arachidonic acid, and more recently, the action of polyphosphates. However, how that process occurs in vivo is yet to be understood. In this review, searching the most accurate and updated literature on the matter, we focus on the precise molecular events linking tau modifications, its misfolding and the initiation of its pathological self-assembly. Among these, we can identify challenges regarding tau phosphorylation, the link between tau heteroarylations and the onset of its self-assembly, as well as the possible metabolic pathways involving natural polyphosphates, that may play a role in tau self-assembly.

Association of lectin-like oxidized low density lipoprotein receptor 1 (OLR1) polymorphisms with late-onset Alzheimer disease in Han Chinese

Background

Lectin-like oxidized low density lipoprotein receptor 1 (OLR1) locates within the area of chromosome 12p, which has been identified as the AD-susceptible region, and plays a role in lipid metabolism. Therefore, it has been suggested to be a good candidate gene for Alzheimer's disease (AD). Several SNPs within OLR1 have been reported to have association with AD among Caucasians.

Methods

We selected and genotyped three SNPs (rs1050283, rs1050286, rs17808009) in OLR1 to investigate its possible relationship with the onset of late-onset Alzheimer disease(LOAD) in 984 LOAD cases and 1,354 healthy controls among northern Han Chinese.

Results

No significant association was found between the OLR1 (rs1050283, rs1050286, rs17808009) polymorphisms and LOAD, even after adjustment for gender and age and stratification for apolipoprotein E (APOE) status.

Conclusions

Our study showed that the SNPs (rs1050283, rs1050286, rs17808009) located in the 3'UTR of OLR1 may not involve in the mechanism of LOAD in Han Chinese population.

Can metabolically healthy obesity be explained by diet, genetics, and inflammation?

A substantial proportion of obese individuals do not present cardiometabolic complications such as diabetes, hypertension, or dyslipidemia. Some, but not all, prospective studies observe similar risk of cardiovascular events and all-cause mortality among individuals with this so-called "metabolically healthy obese" (MHO) phenotype, compared to the metabolically healthy normal weight or metabolically healthy non-obese phenotypes. Compared to the metabolically unhealthy obese (MUO) phenotype, MHO is often characterized by a more favorable inflammatory profile, less visceral fat, less infiltration of macrophages into adipose tissue, and smaller adipocyte cell size. Tipping the inflammation balance in adipose tissue might be particularly important for metabolic health in the obese. While the potential role of genetic predisposition or lifestyle factors such as diet in the MHO phenotype is yet to be clarified, it is well known that diet affects inflammation profile and contributes to the functionality of adipose tissue. This review will discuss genetic predisposition and the molecular mechanisms underlying the potential effect of food on the development of the metabolic phenotype characteristic of obesity.

Cytokine gene polymorphisms and Alzheimer's disease in Brazil

BACKGROUND

Single-nucleotide polymorphisms in genes encoding immunological mediators can affect the biological activity of these molecules by regulating transcription, translation, or secretion, modulating the genetic risk of inflammatory damage in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Nonetheless, the Brazilian contingent is highly admixed, and few association trials performed herein with AD patients have considered genetic ancestry estimates as co-variables when investigating markers for this complex trait.

METHODS

We analyzed polymorphisms in 10 inflammatory genes and compared the genotype distribution across outpatients with late-onset AD and noncognitively impaired subjects from Midwest Brazil under a strict criterion, and controlling for ancestry heritage and ApoE genotype.

RESULTS

Our findings show an almost 40% lower chance of AD (p = 0.004) among homozygotes of the IL10 -1082A allele (rs1800896). Dichotomization to ApoE and mean ancestry levels did not affect protection, except among those with greater European or minor African heritage.

CONCLUSION

The IL10 locus seems to affect the onset of AD in a context sensitive to the genetic ancestry of Brazilian older adults.

Association study of interferon-γ, cytosolic phospholipase A2, and cyclooxygenase-2 gene polymorphisms in Alzheimer disease

OBJECTIVE

The increased production of proinflammatory mediators such as cytokines and prostaglandins may interact at multiple levels with neurodegeneration in Alzheimer disease (AD). This study was undertaken to evaluate the possible role of interferon-γ (IFN-γ) T+874A, cytoplasmic phospholipase A₂ (cPLA2) BanI, and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) G-765C polymorphisms in AD.

METHODS

The study included 237 probable patients with AD who met the diagnostic criteria of National Institute of Neurological and Communicative Disorders and Stroke-AD and Related Disorders Association, and 245 probands in the healthy comparison (HC) group.

RESULTS

No significant difference in mean age or in the distribution of genders between AD and HC groups was found. The COX-2 G/G genotype was significantly more frequent in the AD, when compared with the HC group. There was no significant correlation between IFN-γ or cPLA2 genotypes and AD.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings indicate that the COX-2 G/G genotype is associated with AD and support the involvement of COX-2 in AD etiology.

The Gab2 in signal transduction and its potential role in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease

The growth factor receptor-bound protein 2 (Grb2)-associated binder (Gab) proteins are intracellular scaffolding/docking molecules, and participate in multiple signaling pathways, usually acting as the downstream effector of protein-tyrosine kinases (PTKs)-triggered signal transduction pathway. When phosphorylated by PTKs, Gab proteins can recruit several signaling molecules (p85, SHP2, and Crk), and subsequently activate multiple transmitting signals that are critical for cell growth, survival, differentiation and apoptosis. Recently, it has been reported that Gab2 polymorphism is associated with the increase in the risk of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and is involved in the pathogenesis of AD. This review mainly focuses on the structure and function of Gab2 protein and its role in the pathogenesis of AD.

Roles of the prostaglandin E2 receptors EP subtypes in Alzheimer's disease

Neuroinflammation has always been of concern in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD). As a major inflammatory mediator, prostaglandin E(2) (PGE(2)) plays an important role in the inflammatory process of AD. Up to now, there is still controversy on the neuroprotective or neurotoxic role of PGE(2). However, the role of PGE(2) in neurodegeneration may be far more complex, due to the 4 EP receptor subtypes. This article aims to summarize the relationship between PGE(2) receptor EP subtypes and AD. It is believed that a better understanding of the PGE(2) receptor EP subtypes may help to clarify the relation between inflammation and AD, and to develop novel therapeutic strategies targeting specific EP receptor for AD treatment.

Tetrahydroxy stilbene glucoside reduces the cognitive impairment and overexpression of amyloid precursor protein induced by aluminum exposure

OBJECTIVE

Excessive aluminum (Al) exposure impairs neurocognitive function in humans and animals. Epidemiologic studies have shown a potential linkage between chronic Al exposure and Alzheimer's disease. The present study aims to evaluate the effects of tetrahydroxy stilbene glucoside (TSG), the extract from herbal medicine Polygoni Multiflori, on cognitive impairment and the over-expression of hippocampal amyloid precursor protein (APP) induced by chronic exposure to Al in rats.

METHODS

Rats were treated with 0.3% aluminum chloride (AlCl3) prepared in the drinking water for 90 d. AlCl3-treated animals were then randomly assigned to receive vehicle, TSG (4 g/kg), or Vitamin E (VE; 40 mg/kg) treatment for 5 months. VE served as a positive control. The effect of TSG was evaluated by passive avoidance task, and APP expression was evaluated by Western blotting.

RESULTS

Following exposure to AlCl3 for 90 d, animals displayed a striking decrease (> 80%) in step-through latency in the passive avoidance task and a significant increase in the expression of APP in the hippocampus. Both TSG and VE significantly ameliorated the performance impairment in the passive avoidance task, and suppressed the over-expression of APP. Moreover, the effects of TSG, but not of VE, were in a time-dependent manner.

CONCLUSION

TSG may possess therapeutic effects against Alzheimer's disease.

Pathophysiology of vascular dementia

The concept of Vascular Dementia (VaD) has been recognized for over a century, but its definition and diagnostic criteria remain unclear. Conventional definitions identify the patients too late, miss subjects with cognitive impairment short of dementia, and emphasize consequences rather than causes, the true bases for treatment and prevention. We should throw out current diagnostic categories and describe cognitive impairment clinically and according to commonly agreed instruments that document the demographic data in a standardized manner and undertake a systematic effort to identify the underlying aetiology in each case. Increased effort should be targeted towards the concept of and criteria for Vascular Cognitive Impairment and Post-Stroke Dementia as well as for genetic factors involved, especially as these categories hold promise for early prevention and treatment.