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Zhang H, Hu Z, Wang J, Xu J, Wang X, Zang G, Qiu J, Wang G. Shear stress regulation of nanoparticle uptake in vascular endothelial cells. Regen Biomater 2023; 10:rbad047. [PMID: 37351014 PMCID: PMC10281962 DOI: 10.1093/rb/rbad047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2023] [Revised: 04/15/2023] [Accepted: 04/23/2023] [Indexed: 06/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Nanoparticles (NPs) hold tremendous targeting potential in cardiovascular disease and regenerative medicine, and exciting clinical applications are coming into light. Vascular endothelial cells (ECs) exposure to different magnitudes and patterns of shear stress (SS) generated by blood flow could engulf NPs in the blood. However, an unclear understanding of the role of SS on NP uptake is hindering the progress in improving the targeting of NP therapies. Here, the temporal and spatial distribution of SS in vascular ECs and the effect of different SS on NP uptake in ECs are highlighted. The mechanism of SS affecting NP uptake through regulating the cellular ROS level, endothelial glycocalyx and membrane fluidity is summarized, and the molecules containing clathrin and caveolin in the engulfment process are elucidated. SS targeting NPs are expected to overcome the current bottlenecks and change the field of targeting nanomedicine. This assessment on how SS affects the cell uptake of NPs and the marginalization of NPs in blood vessels could guide future research in cell biology and vascular targeting drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongping Zhang
- Key Laboratory for Biorheological Science and Technology of Ministry of Education, State and Local Joint Engineering Laboratory for Vascular Implants, Bioengineering College of Chongqing University, Chongqing 400030, China
| | - Ziqiu Hu
- Key Laboratory for Biorheological Science and Technology of Ministry of Education, State and Local Joint Engineering Laboratory for Vascular Implants, Bioengineering College of Chongqing University, Chongqing 400030, China
| | - Jinxuan Wang
- Key Laboratory for Biorheological Science and Technology of Ministry of Education, State and Local Joint Engineering Laboratory for Vascular Implants, Bioengineering College of Chongqing University, Chongqing 400030, China
| | - Jianxiong Xu
- Key Laboratory for Biorheological Science and Technology of Ministry of Education, State and Local Joint Engineering Laboratory for Vascular Implants, Bioengineering College of Chongqing University, Chongqing 400030, China
| | - Xiangxiu Wang
- Key Laboratory for Biorheological Science and Technology of Ministry of Education, State and Local Joint Engineering Laboratory for Vascular Implants, Bioengineering College of Chongqing University, Chongqing 400030, China
| | - Guangchao Zang
- Lab Teaching & Management Center, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400016, China
| | - Juhui Qiu
- Correspondence address: E-mail: (G.W.); (J.Q.)
| | - Guixue Wang
- Correspondence address: E-mail: (G.W.); (J.Q.)
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Tang K, Li X, Hu Y, Zhang X, Lu N, Fang Q, Shao J, Li S, Xiu W, Song Y, Yang D, Zhang J. Recent advances in Prussian blue-based photothermal therapy in cancer treatment. Biomater Sci 2023. [PMID: 37067845 DOI: 10.1039/d3bm00509g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/18/2023]
Abstract
Malignant tumours are a serious threat to human health. Traditional chemotherapy has achieved breakthrough improvements but also has significant detrimental effects, such as the development of drug resistance, immunosuppression, and even systemic toxicity. Photothermal therapy (PTT) is an emerging cancer therapy. Under light irradiation, the phototherapeutic agent converts optical energy into thermal energy and induces the hyperthermic death of target cells. To date, numerous photothermal agents have been developed. Prussian blue (PB) nanoparticles are among the most promising photothermal agents due to their excellent physicochemical properties, including photoacoustic and magnetic resonance imaging properties, photothermal conversion performance, and enzyme-like activity. By the construction of suitably designed PB-based nanotherapeutics, enhanced photothermal performance, targeting ability, multimodal therapy, and imaging-guided cancer therapy can be effectively and feasibly achieved. In this review, the recent advances in PB-based photothermal combinatorial therapy and imaging-guided cancer therapy are comprehensively summarized. Finally, the potential obstacles of future research and clinical translation are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaiyuan Tang
- School of Fundamental Sciences, Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu 233030, PR China.
| | - Xiao Li
- State Key Laboratory of Organic Electronics and Information Displays & Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Biosensors, Institute of Advanced Materials (IAM), School of Geography and Biological Information, Nanjing University of Posts & Telecommunications, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Yanling Hu
- Nanjing Polytechnic Institute, Nanjing 210048, China.
- State Key Laboratory of Organic Electronics and Information Displays & Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Biosensors, Institute of Advanced Materials (IAM), School of Geography and Biological Information, Nanjing University of Posts & Telecommunications, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Xiaonan Zhang
- School of Fundamental Sciences, Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu 233030, PR China.
| | - Nan Lu
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Qiang Fang
- School of Fundamental Sciences, Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu 233030, PR China.
| | - Jinjun Shao
- Key Laboratory of Flexible Electronics (KLOFE) and Institute of Advanced Materials (IAM), School of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, Nanjing Tech University (NanjingTech), Nanjing 211816, China.
| | - Shengke Li
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Institute of Chinese Medical Sciences, University of Macau, Taipa, Macau SAR, China
| | - Weijun Xiu
- State Key Laboratory of Organic Electronics and Information Displays & Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Biosensors, Institute of Advanced Materials (IAM), School of Geography and Biological Information, Nanjing University of Posts & Telecommunications, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Yanni Song
- Key Laboratory of Flexible Electronics (KLOFE) and Institute of Advanced Materials (IAM), School of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, Nanjing Tech University (NanjingTech), Nanjing 211816, China.
| | - Dongliang Yang
- Key Laboratory of Flexible Electronics (KLOFE) and Institute of Advanced Materials (IAM), School of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, Nanjing Tech University (NanjingTech), Nanjing 211816, China.
| | - Junjie Zhang
- School of Fundamental Sciences, Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu 233030, PR China.
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Fernandes PD, Magalhães FD, Pereira RF, Pinto AM. Metal-Organic Frameworks Applications in Synergistic Cancer Photo-Immunotherapy. Polymers (Basel) 2023; 15:polym15061490. [PMID: 36987269 PMCID: PMC10053741 DOI: 10.3390/polym15061490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2023] [Revised: 03/12/2023] [Accepted: 03/13/2023] [Indexed: 03/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Conventional cancer therapies, such as radiotherapy and chemotherapy, can have long-term side effects. Phototherapy has significant potential as a non-invasive alternative treatment with excellent selectivity. Nevertheless, its applicability is restricted by the availability of effective photosensitizers and photothermal agents, and its low efficacy when it comes to avoiding metastasis and tumor recurrence. Immunotherapy can promote systemic antitumoral immune responses, acting against metastasis and recurrence; however, it lacks the selectivity displayed by phototherapy, sometimes leading to adverse immune events. The use of metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) in the biomedical field has grown significantly in recent years. Due to their distinct properties, including their porous structure, large surface area, and inherent photo-responsive properties, MOFs can be particularly useful in the fields of cancer phototherapy and immunotherapy. MOF nanoplatforms have successfully demonstrated their ability to address several drawbacks associated with cancer phototherapy and immunotherapy, enabling an effective and low-side-effect combinatorial synergistical treatment for cancer. In the coming years, new advancements in MOFs, particularly regarding the development of highly stable multi-function MOF nanocomposites, may revolutionize the field of oncology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro D. Fernandes
- LEPABE, Faculdade de Engenharia, Universidade do Porto, Rua Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
- AliCE—Associate Laboratory in Chemical Engineering, Faculdade de Engenharia, Universidade do Porto, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
- i3S—Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen 208, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal
- INEB—Instituto de Engenharia Biomédica, Universidade do Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen 208, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal
| | - Fernão D. Magalhães
- LEPABE, Faculdade de Engenharia, Universidade do Porto, Rua Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
- AliCE—Associate Laboratory in Chemical Engineering, Faculdade de Engenharia, Universidade do Porto, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
| | - Rúben F. Pereira
- i3S—Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen 208, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal
- INEB—Instituto de Engenharia Biomédica, Universidade do Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen 208, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal
- ICBAS—Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas Abel Salazar, Universidade do Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - Artur M. Pinto
- LEPABE, Faculdade de Engenharia, Universidade do Porto, Rua Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
- AliCE—Associate Laboratory in Chemical Engineering, Faculdade de Engenharia, Universidade do Porto, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
- i3S—Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen 208, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal
- INEB—Instituto de Engenharia Biomédica, Universidade do Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen 208, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal
- Correspondence:
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Balakrishnan PB, Holmberg CS, Ledezma DK, Bosque A, Fernandes R. PolyIC-coated Prussian blue nanoparticles as a dual-mode HIV latency reversing agent. Nanomedicine (Lond) 2022; 17:2159-2171. [PMID: 36734362 PMCID: PMC10061244 DOI: 10.2217/nnm-2022-0311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2022] [Accepted: 01/12/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Aim: To investigate Prussian blue nanoparticles (PBNPs) coated with the synthetic analog of dsRNA polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid (polyIC) for their ability to function as HIV latency reversing agents. Methods: A layer-by-layer method was used to synthesize polyIC-coated PBNPs (polyIC-PBNPs). PolyIC-PBNPs were stable and monodisperse, maintained the native absorbance properties of both polyIC and PBNPs and were obtained with high nanoparticle collection yield and polyIC attachment efficiencies. Results: PolyIC-PBNPs were more effective in reactivating latent HIV than free polyIC in a cell model of HIV latency. Furthermore, polyIC-PBNPs were more effective in promoting immune activation than free polyIC in CD4 and CD8 T cells. Conclusion: PBNPs function as efficient carriers of nucleic acids to directly reverse HIV latency and enhance immune activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Preethi B Balakrishnan
- Department of Medicine, The George Washington University, 2300 I Street NW, Washington, DC 20037, USA
- The George Washington Cancer Center, The George Washington University, Science & Engineering Hall, Ste 8300, Washington, DC 20052, USA
| | - Carissa S Holmberg
- The Institute for Biomedical Sciences, The George Washington University, 2300 I Street NW, Ross Hall, Room 561, Washington, DC 20037, USA
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology & Tropical Medicine, The George Washington University, 2300 I Street NW, Washington, DC 20037, USA
| | - Debbie K Ledezma
- Department of Medicine, The George Washington University, 2300 I Street NW, Washington, DC 20037, USA
- The George Washington Cancer Center, The George Washington University, Science & Engineering Hall, Ste 8300, Washington, DC 20052, USA
- The Institute for Biomedical Sciences, The George Washington University, 2300 I Street NW, Ross Hall, Room 561, Washington, DC 20037, USA
| | - Alberto Bosque
- The Institute for Biomedical Sciences, The George Washington University, 2300 I Street NW, Ross Hall, Room 561, Washington, DC 20037, USA
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology & Tropical Medicine, The George Washington University, 2300 I Street NW, Washington, DC 20037, USA
| | - Rohan Fernandes
- Department of Medicine, The George Washington University, 2300 I Street NW, Washington, DC 20037, USA
- The George Washington Cancer Center, The George Washington University, Science & Engineering Hall, Ste 8300, Washington, DC 20052, USA
- The Institute for Biomedical Sciences, The George Washington University, 2300 I Street NW, Ross Hall, Room 561, Washington, DC 20037, USA
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He Y, Chen R, Zhao C, Lu Q, Chen Z, Zhu H, Bu Q, Wang L, He H. Design of Near-Infrared-Triggered Cellulose Nanocrystal-Based In Situ Intelligent Wound Dressings for Drug-Resistant Bacteria-Infected Wound Healing. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 2022; 14:51630-51644. [PMID: 36375077 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.2c13203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Postoperative infected wound complications caused by residual tumor cells, bacterial biofilms, and drug-resistant bacteria have become the main challenge in postsurgical skin regeneration. Herein, a bionic cellulose nanocrystal (CNC)-based in situ intelligent wound dressing with near-infrared (NIR)-, temperature-, and pH-responsive functions was designed by using NIR-responsive CNC as the network skeleton, dynamic imine bonds between dialdehyde cellulose nanocrystals and doxorubicin, chitosan oligosaccharide as the pH-responsive switch, and temperature-sensitive poly(N-isopropyl acrylamide) as the temperature-responsive in situ formation switch. The as-prepared wound dressing with the intertwining three-dimensional (3D) network structure possessed high drug loadability of indocyanine green (30 mg/g) and doxorubicin (420 mg/g) simultaneously. The temperature-, NIR-, and pH-responsive switches endowed the wound dressing with controllable on-demand drug release behavior. In particular, the temperature switch endowed the dressing with a shape-adaptable ability on irregularly infected wounds. Interestingly, the wound dressing showed excellent antitumor activity for A375 tumor cells, antibacterial activity against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and bacterial biofilm removal ability. Therefore, the developed wound dressing can provide an ideal synergistic treatment strategy combined with chemotherapy and photodynamic and photothermal therapy for postoperative drug-resistant bacteria-infected wound healing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yonghui He
- School of Light Industry and Food Engineering, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, P. R. China
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Clean Pulp and Papermaking and Pollution Control, Nanning 530004, P. R. China
| | - Rimei Chen
- School of Light Industry and Food Engineering, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, P. R. China
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Clean Pulp and Papermaking and Pollution Control, Nanning 530004, P. R. China
| | - Chao Zhao
- School of Light Industry and Food Engineering, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, P. R. China
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Clean Pulp and Papermaking and Pollution Control, Nanning 530004, P. R. China
| | - Qin Lu
- School of Light Industry and Food Engineering, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, P. R. China
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Clean Pulp and Papermaking and Pollution Control, Nanning 530004, P. R. China
| | - Zhiping Chen
- School of Light Industry and Food Engineering, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, P. R. China
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Clean Pulp and Papermaking and Pollution Control, Nanning 530004, P. R. China
| | - Hongxiang Zhu
- School of Light Industry and Food Engineering, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, P. R. China
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Clean Pulp and Papermaking and Pollution Control, Nanning 530004, P. R. China
| | - Qing Bu
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning 530021, P. R. China
| | - Lei Wang
- School of Light Industry and Food Engineering, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, P. R. China
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Clean Pulp and Papermaking and Pollution Control, Nanning 530004, P. R. China
| | - Hui He
- School of Light Industry and Food Engineering, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, P. R. China
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Clean Pulp and Papermaking and Pollution Control, Nanning 530004, P. R. China
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Ledezma DK, Balakrishnan PB, Shukla A, Medina JA, Chen J, Oakley E, Bollard CM, Shafirstein G, Miscuglio M, Fernandes R. Interstitial Photothermal Therapy Generates Durable Treatment Responses in Neuroblastoma. Adv Healthc Mater 2022; 11:e2201084. [PMID: 35943173 PMCID: PMC9588730 DOI: 10.1002/adhm.202201084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2022] [Revised: 07/23/2022] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Photothermal therapy (PTT) represents a promising modality for tumor control typically using infrared light-responsive nanoparticles illuminated by a wavelength-matched external laser. However, due to the constraints of light penetration, PTT is generally restricted to superficially accessible tumors. With the goal of extending the benefits of PTT to all tumor settings, interstitial PTT (I-PTT) is evaluated by the photothermal activation of intratumorally administered Prussian blue nanoparticles with a laser fiber positioned interstitially within the tumor. This interstitial fiber, which is fitted with a terminal diffuser, distributes light within the tumor microenvironment from the "inside-out" as compared to from the "outside-in" traditionally observed during superficially administered PTT (S-PTT). I-PTT improves the heating efficiency and heat distribution within a target treatment area compared to S-PTT. Additionally, I-PTT generates increased cytotoxicity and thermal damage at equivalent thermal doses, and elicits immunogenic cell death at lower thermal doses in targeted neuroblastoma tumor cells compared to S-PTT. In vivo, I-PTT induces significantly higher long-term tumor regression, lower rates of tumor recurrence, and improved long-term survival in multiple syngeneic murine models of neuroblastoma. This study highlights the significantly enhanced therapeutic benefit of I-PTT compared to traditional S-PTT as a promising treatment modality for solid tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Debbie K Ledezma
- The George Washington Cancer Center, The George Washington University, 800 22nd St NW, 8300 Science and Engineering Hall, Washington, DC, 20052, USA
- The Institute for Biomedical Sciences, The George Washington University, 2300 Eye Street NW, Ross Hall Room 561, Washington, DC, 20037, USA
| | - Preethi B Balakrishnan
- The George Washington Cancer Center, The George Washington University, 800 22nd St NW, 8300 Science and Engineering Hall, Washington, DC, 20052, USA
| | - Anshi Shukla
- The George Washington Cancer Center, The George Washington University, 800 22nd St NW, 8300 Science and Engineering Hall, Washington, DC, 20052, USA
| | - Jacob A Medina
- The George Washington Cancer Center, The George Washington University, 800 22nd St NW, 8300 Science and Engineering Hall, Washington, DC, 20052, USA
- The Institute for Biomedical Sciences, The George Washington University, 2300 Eye Street NW, Ross Hall Room 561, Washington, DC, 20037, USA
| | - Jie Chen
- The George Washington Cancer Center, The George Washington University, 800 22nd St NW, 8300 Science and Engineering Hall, Washington, DC, 20052, USA
| | - Emily Oakley
- Photodynamic Therapy Center, Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center, Department of Cell Stress Biology, Roswell Park, Elm and Carlton Streets, Buffalo, NY, 14263, USA
| | - Catherine M Bollard
- The George Washington Cancer Center, The George Washington University, 800 22nd St NW, 8300 Science and Engineering Hall, Washington, DC, 20052, USA
- Center for Cancer and Immunology Research, Children's National Hospital, 111 Michigan Ave NW, Washington, DC, 20010, USA
| | - Gal Shafirstein
- Photodynamic Therapy Center, Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center, Department of Cell Stress Biology, Roswell Park, Elm and Carlton Streets, Buffalo, NY, 14263, USA
| | - Mario Miscuglio
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, The George Washington University, 800 22nd St NW, 5000 Science and Engineering Hall, Washington, DC, 20052, USA
| | - Rohan Fernandes
- The George Washington Cancer Center, The George Washington University, 800 22nd St NW, 8300 Science and Engineering Hall, Washington, DC, 20052, USA
- Department of Medicine, The George Washington University, 2150 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW, Suite 8-416, Washington, DC, 20037, USA
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Bonan NF, Ledezma DK, Tovar MA, Balakrishnan PB, Fernandes R. Anti-Fn14-Conjugated Prussian Blue Nanoparticles as a Targeted Photothermal Therapy Agent for Glioblastoma. Nanomaterials 2022; 12:2645. [PMID: 35957076 PMCID: PMC9370342 DOI: 10.3390/nano12152645] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2022] [Revised: 07/26/2022] [Accepted: 07/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022]
Abstract
Prussian blue nanoparticles (PBNPs) are effective photothermal therapy (PTT) agents: they absorb near-infrared radiation and reemit it as heat via phonon-phonon relaxations that, in the presence of tumors, can induce thermal and immunogenic cell death. However, in the context of central nervous system (CNS) tumors, the off-target effects of PTT have the potential to result in injury to healthy CNS tissue. Motivated by this need for targeted PTT agents for CNS tumors, we present a PBNP formulation that targets fibroblast growth factor-inducible 14 (Fn14)-expressing glioblastoma cell lines. We conjugated an antibody targeting Fn14, a receptor abundantly expressed on many glioblastomas but near absent on healthy CNS tissue, to PBNPs (aFn14-PBNPs). We measured the attachment efficiency of aFn14 onto PBNPs, the size and stability of aFn14-PBNPs, and the ability of aFn14-PBNPs to induce thermal and immunogenic cell death and target and treat glioblastoma tumor cells in vitro. aFn14 remained stably conjugated to the PBNPs for at least 21 days. Further, PTT with aFn14-PBNPs induced thermal and immunogenic cell death in glioblastoma tumor cells. However, in a targeted treatment assay, PTT was only effective in killing glioblastoma tumor cells when using aFn14-PBNPs, not when using PBNPs alone. Our methodology is novel in its targeting moiety, tumor application, and combination with PTT. To the best of our knowledge, PBNPs have not been investigated as a targeted PTT agent in glioblastoma via conjugation to aFn14. Our results demonstrate a novel and effective method for delivering targeted PTT to aFn14-expressing tumor cells via aFn14 conjugation to PBNPs.
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