Tensile strength of flexor tendon repair using barbed suture material in a dynamic ex vivo model

Biomechanical Evaluation of Novel Tendon Coaptation Technique: A Potential Application for Tendon Transfers

Purpose

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the biomechanical performance and time to completion of the Pulvertaft weave technique, the CoNextions tendon repair system only, and a combination of single Pulvertaft weave with the CoNextions repair.

Methods

A total of 22 cadaveric hands were dissected, and the extensor pollicis longus tendons were harvested and divided into the following three groups: (1) Pulvertaft weave, (2) Pulvertaft weave + CoNextions, and (3) CoNextions. Each sample underwent axial loading in a cyclical fashion, followed by ramp to failure. Metrics of interest were suture time, displacement, stiffness, ultimate failure load, and failure mechanism were recorded.

Results

Time required to instrument each configuration was significantly different across all groups; CoNextions group was the fastest. For cyclic loading, no significant differences in elongation were detected between the groups. The displacement at ultimate failure load, on average, for the Pulvertaft (10.6 mm) and the Pulvertaft and CoNextions combination (10.2 mm) were not significantly different compared with CoNextions (6.5 mm). The stiffness during cyclic loading was similar between the Pulvertaft (38.8 N/mm) and the Pulvertaft and CoNextions combination (36.7 N/mm), and both were found to be significantly stiffer compared with the CoNextions (28.0 N/mm). During the ramp to failure, no significant differences in stiffness were detected. The Pulvertaft had the largest ultimate failure load at 67.5 N.

Conclusions

The Pulvertaft weave and CoNextions tendon repair device demonstrated similar performance to traditional Pulvertaft tendon weave. The combination technique is faster than the traditional tendon weave and displayed improved performance compared with CoNextions repair alone.

Clinical relevance

The combined use of novel tendon repair with a single tendon weave allows for faster tendon coaptation and equivalent strength as a Pulvertaft weave.

Biomechanical comparison of different suture materials with different techniques in tendon repair: An ex-vivo study

OBJECTIVES

Sheep Achilles tendons are used as an effective preclinical model of flexor tendon repair in plastic surgery, due to their biomechanical properties, which are similar to humans. The aim of this study was to examine the efficacy and biomechanical outcomes of suture materials and tendon repair techniques in flexor tendon repair.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

72 sheep tendons were obtained for a total of 12 different scenarios. Tendons were repaired using 4 different suture types and 3 different suture techniques. After repair, the tendons were fixed at both ends and subjected to biomechanical tests. Ultimate Failure Load (UFL) and 2-mm Gap Load (GL) per scenario were compared statistically within and between groups.

RESULTS

UFL and GL of all sutures were significantly different between the modified Kessler, Bunnell and Krackow techniques (P < 0.05), and between Monosorb, Ti-Cron and V-loc sutures (P < 0.05). UFL and GL according to repair technique were not significantly different for the Propilen suture (P > 0.05).

CONCLUSION

When UFL and GL were considered together, our findings indicate that optimal strength scenarios were for the modified Kessler technique using Monosorb or V-loc sutures.

[Current Trends in Flexor Tendon Surgery: Results of a National Online Survey]

Within the last 50 years, there has been a change in trend in flexor tendon surgery. After the introduction of the 2-strand technique, the 4-strand technique was propagated in the 1990s. In order to obtain a status quo of which technique is used in Germany and if the gold standard of the 4-strand suture has changed in favour of a 6-strand suture, we conducted an online survey among members of the DGH ("Deutsche Gesellschaft für Handchirurgie", German Society for Hand Surgery) on the suture technique of flexor tendon injuries zone 2.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

An online survey was conducted and sent out by email to all DGH members. The questionnaire included 7 questions. Participants accessed the survey via a link.

RESULTS

155 hand surgeons from Germany participated in the survey. All of them answered the questionnaire in full and all questionnaires were included in the evaluation. The main question of how many strands are currently used for core suturing was answered as follows: 21% (n=32) of the 155 participants (TN) stated that they use a 2-strand suture, 53% used (n=82) a 4-strand suture and 10% used a 6-strand suture. Regarding techniques, 81 TN used the Kirchmayr-Kessler technique or a modification of it, 9 TN used the M-Tang technique, and 15 TN indicated "other technique". The question about the application of an epitendinous suture was overwhelmingly answered with "yes". Here, 98.2% agreed. Only with regard to the suture material, different opinions were found. 68% (n=106) use an absorbable monofilament suture (such as PDS). Just under a quarter (23%, n=36) use a non-absorbable monofilament suture (such as Prolene).

CONCLUSION

Flexor tendon surgery has changed considerably due to intensive advances in research during the last decades. It was interesting to note in our survey that German hand surgeons have adapted their suture technique within the last years based on the results of the literature. Our results clearly show that convincing scientific data has an influence on the choice of surgical technique and that discussions about new techniques, e. g. in the context of annual meetings, may well stimulate the auditorium to rethink.

Comparison of the mechanical properties and anchoring performance of polyvinylidene fluoride and polypropylene barbed sutures for tendon repair

Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) has been considered as an alternative suture material to replace polypropylene (PP) due to its superior biocompatibility and mechanical properties, but it has never been examined for use in barbed sutures, particularly for tendon repair. This study fabricated size 2–0 PVDF and PP bidirectional barbed sutures and compared their mechanical properties and anchoring performance in patellar tendons. The mechanical properties were evaluated via tensile testing, and the anchoring performance of the barbed sutures was assessed by a tendon suture pullout test. Sixty porcine patellar tendons were harvested, transected to mimic a full‐thickness injury, and repaired using a cross‐locked cruciate suturing technique. The ultimate tensile force was 60% higher for the PVDF barbed sutures (22.4 ± 2.1 N) than for the PP barbed sutures (14.0 ± 1.7 N). The maximum pullout force was 35% higher for PVDF barbed sutures (70.8 ± 7.8 N) than for PP barbed sutures (52.4 ± 5.8 N). The force needed to form a 2‐mm gap, indicative of repair failure, was similar between the PVDF (29.2 ± 5.0 N) and PP (25.6 ± 3.1 N) barbed sutures, but both were greater than the 2‐mm‐gap forces for non‐barbed sutures of the same size. In this study, PVDF barbed sutures provided better mechanical properties and improved tissue anchoring performance compared to the barbed PP sutures for porcine patellar tendon repair, demonstrating that PVDF monofilament sutures can be barbed and used effectively for tendon repair.

Evaluation of a continuous locking novel epitendinous suture pattern with and without a core locking-loop suture on the biomechanical properties of tenorrhaphy constructs in an ex vivo model of canine superficial digital flexor tendon laceration

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the effect of a continuous locking novel epitendinous suture (nES) pattern with and without a core locking-loop (LL) suture on the biomechanical properties of ex vivo canine superficial digital flexor tendon (SDFT) tenorrhaphy constructs.

SAMPLE

54 cadaveric forelimb SDFTs from 27 musculoskeletally normal adult dogs.

PROCEDURES

Tendons were assigned to 3 groups (18 SDFTs/group): sharply transected and repaired with a core LL suture alone (group 1), an nES pattern alone (group 2), or a combination of a core LL suture and nES pattern (group 3). All constructs underwent a single load-to-failure test. Yield, peak, and failure loads; gap formation incidence; and mode of failure were compared among the 3 groups.

RESULTS

Mean yield, peak, and failure loads differed significantly among the 3 groups and were greatest for group 3 and lowest for group 1. Mean yield, peak, and failure loads for group 3 constructs were greater than those for group 1 constructs by 50%, 47%, and 44%, respectively. None of the group 3 constructs developed 3-mm gaps. The most common mode of failure was suture pulling through the tendon for groups 1 (12/18) and 2 (12/18) and suture breakage for group 3 (13/18).

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Results suggested augmentation of a core LL suture with an nES pattern significantly increased the strength of and prevented 3-mm gap formation at the tenorrhaphy site in ex vivo canine SDFTs. In vivo studies are necessary to assess the effectiveness and practicality of the nES pattern for SDFT repair in dogs.

Improving Strength and Quality of Epitendinous Repairs

Background: Epitendinous sutures not only join the 2 severed tendon edges but also supply strength and support to the repair. Multiple techniques have been described, but none of them include another thread of suture. This could potentially increase the strength of the repair without affecting gliding. Methods: Caprine tendons were harvested, transected, and sutured with 6-0 Prolene. Four groups were created: single thread running (SR), single thread locking (SL), double thread running (DR), and double thread locking (DL). An Instron 5542 was used to pull the repaired tendons apart, and the energy at the break was calculated (gf/mm). For gliding resistance, we harvested a human A2 pulley. A pre- and postrepair value was obtained, and a ratio was elaborated. A single-factor analysis of variance and independent sample t tests were performed. Results: The SR group had a mean energy at break of 9339.71 ± 1630.212 gf/mm; the SL group, 9629.96 ± 1476.45 gf/mm; and the DR group, 9600.221 ± 976.087 gf/mm, with no statistical significance. The DL group was significantly higher at 14 740.664 ± 2596.586 gf/mm (P < .05). When comparing SR with DL for gliding, SR had less than half of the resistance than DL (0.018 ± 0.004 and 0.049 ± 0.015 N/mm, respectively), with statistical significance (P < .05). Conclusion: Using a single suture thread for running epitendinous repair is no different than locking with a single thread or using an extra thread in a running fashion. Performing a double suture thread with a locking technique is significantly stronger than the previously mentioned repairs, with the disadvantage of more resistance at the pulley.

Effect of bite depth of an epitendinous suture on the biomechanical strength of repaired canine flexor tendons

OBJECTIVE

To determine effects of bite depth for placement of an epitendinous suture on the biomechanical strength and gap formation of repaired canine tendons.

SAMPLE

48 superficial digital flexor tendons (SDFTs) obtained from 24 canine cadavers.

PROCEDURES

Tendons were assigned to 3 groups (16 tendons/group). Each SDFT was transected and then repaired with a continuous epitendinous suture placed with a bite depth of 1, 2, or 3 mm for groups 1, 2, and 3, respectively. Specimens were loaded to failure. Failure mode, gap formation, yield force, peak force, and failure force were analyzed.

RESULTS

Yield, peak, and failure forces differed significantly between groups 1 and 3 and groups 2 and 3 but not between groups 1 and 2. Comparison of the force resisted at 1 and 3 mm of gapping revealed a significant difference between groups 1 and 3 and groups 2 and 3 but not between groups 1 and 2. Failure mode did not differ among groups; suture pull-through occurred in 43 of 48 (89.6%) specimens.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Increasing bite depth of an epitendinous suture toward the center of the tendon substance increased repair site strength and decreased the incidence of gap formation. Repair of tendon injuries in dogs by use of an epitendinous suture with bites made deep into the tendon should result in a stronger repair, which potentially would allow loading and rehabilitation to begin sooner after surgery. Suture techniques should be investigated in vivo to determine effects on tendinous healing and blood supply before clinical implementation.

The use of bidirectional barbed suture in the treatment of a complete common calcanean tendon rupture in a dog: Long-term clinical and ultrasonographic evaluation

The canine common calcanean tendon can be repaired successfully using a modified Kessler knotless barbed technique. A long-term ultrasound follow-up showed improved and increased normal tendon fibrillar echotexture and homogeneity.

In Vitro Comparison of Two Barbed Suture Configurations for Flexor Tendon Repair

Purpose  The current study compares the strength of a previously studied technique for flexor tendon repair with barbed sutures to an experimental approach that aligns all the barbs to oppose distraction. Methods  Twelve flexor tendons from cadaveric specimens were mechanically tested following repair of simulated zone II tendon injuries. Two repair techniques utilizing barbed sutures were studied: the Marrero-Amadeo four-core barbed suture approach and the experimental configuration with all barbs on four cores opposing distraction. Maximum applied load at failure, that is, ultimate load, and 2-mm gap force were compared between the two repair techniques, both as raw values and after normalization to cross-sectional area of the intact tendon. Statistical testing was performed using t -tests and Mann-Whitney U -tests, where appropriate, with a significance level of 0.05. Results  The ultimate loads, raw (58.2 N) and normalized (4.8 N/mm ² ), were significantly larger for the Marrero-Amadeo repair than the proposed experimental approach (35.6 N and 2.7 N/mm ² ; p  < 0.05). No significant differences were identified for 2-mm gap force. Conclusion  The innovation of suturing to align all barbs to oppose distraction does not improve strength of the repaired tendon. The Marrero-Amadeo technique was found to have superior strength for use in traumatic zone II flexor tendon injuries.

Ex vivo biomechanical comparison of barbed suture and standard polypropylene suture for acute tendon laceration in a canine model

Objectives: Evaluate performance and resistance to gap formation of a non-absorbable, barbed, monofilament suture, in comparison with a non-absorbable, smooth, monofilament polypropylene suture, in two different suture patterns: three-loop pulley (3LP) and modified Bunnell-Mayer (BM).

Sample size: Seventy-two medium-sized cadaveric superficial digital flexor muscle tendon units.

Methods: After manual transection and suture repair, individual specimens were placed in an electromechanical tensile testing machine and tested to monotonic failure using tensile ramp loading. Video data acquisition allowed evaluation of failure mode and quantification of gap formation.

Results: Incidence of gap formation between tendon ends was significantly greater in tenorrhaphies repaired with barbed suture compared to those repaired with smooth polypropylene. Use of a 3LP suture pattern caused significantly less gapping between tendon ends when compared to the BM pattern.

Conclusion: Smooth polypropylene suture was consistently superior in load performance than a unidirectional barbed suture. The 3LP pattern was more resistant than a BM pattern at preventing gap formation.

Clinical significance: Smooth polypropylene should be recommended over barbed unidirectional suture for use in canine tendinous repair to provide increased resistance to gap formation. The 3LP is superior to the BM suture pattern, requiring significantly more force to cause tenorrhaphy gap formation and failure, which may translate to increased accrual of repair site strength and tendinous healing in clinical situations.

Does Barbed Suture Repair Negate the Benefit of Peripheral Repair in Porcine Flexor Tendon?

Background: Advances in suture material and geometry have fueled interest in barbed suture tenorrhaphy. Theoretically, barbed suture allows better load distribution, smoother gliding under pulleys, and improved tendon blood flow. Minimal data exist on whether barbed tendon repair may benefit from supplementation by a peripheral stitch. The purpose of this study is to determine whether peripheral suture repair increases gap resistance in both conventional and barbed core repairs, increases maximum tensile strength, and fails before or after the core repair. Methods: Porcine flexor tendons were harvested and assigned randomly into 4 groups of 10 of varying suture constructs (3-0 PDS™ or 3-0 V-Loc 180™ core with or without peripheral 5-0 Vicryl™ repair). Core repairs were performed using a modified 4-strand cruciate repair. A servohydrolic tester was used for biomechanical testing of linear 2-mm gap resistance and maximum tensile strength. Results: Peripheral repair improved 2-mm gap resistance in all repairs, regardless of core suture type, conventional (173% increase) or barbed (204% increase). No change in the maximum tensile strength was found in either core suture type with peripheral repair. Peripheral repairs always failed before core repairs, at a significantly higher load of 74.2 ± 20.4 N in barbed versus 57.8 ± 12.2 N (P = .04) in conventional core repairs. Conclusions: The addition of peripheral repair improved gap resistance but not ultimate tensile strength in both conventional and barbed flexor tendon repairs in linear testing. The 4-strand cruciate flexor tendon repairs using barbed suture may require peripheral repair to withstand physiologic loads, as core repair alone using barbed suture was insufficient.

Comparison of Barbed Sutures in Porcine Flexor Tenorrhaphy

Background: Barbed suture use has become more popular as technology and materials have advanced. Minimal data exist regarding performance of the 2 commercially available products, V-LocTM and StratafixTM in tendon repairs. The purpose of this study was to compare gap resistance and ultimate tensile strength of both suture materials and nonbarbed suture in a porcine ex vivo model. Methods: Porcine flexor tendons were harvested and divided into 3 groups of 10 of varying suture material (3-0 PDS™, 3-0 V- V-Loc 180™, or 3-0 Stratafix™). A modified 4-strand cruciate technique was used to repair each tendon. Knotless repair was performed using barbed suture, whereas a buried 6-throw square knot was done using conventional suture. A servohydrolic tester was used for biomechanical testing of linear 2-mm gap resistance and maximum tensile strength. Results: No difference was found in 2-mm gap resistance among the 3 groups. No difference was found in ultimate tensile strength between V-Loc™ (76.0 ± 9.4 N) and Stratafix™ (68.1 ± 8.4 N) repairs, but the ultimate strength of the PDS™ control group (83.4 ± 10.0 N) was significantly higher than that of Stratafix™. Conclusions: Barbed (knotless) and nonbarbed suture repairs demonstrate equivalent 2-mm gap resistance. Stratafix™ repairs show slightly inferior performance to nonbarbed repairs in ultimate tensile strength, although this occurred at gap distances far beyond the 2-mm threshold for normal tendon gliding. Both barbed and nonbarbed 4-strand cruciate flexor tendon repairs may require peripheral repair to withstand physiologic loads.

The effect of barbed suture tendon repair on work of flexion

PURPOSE

To compare the work of flexion, ultimate strength, and gap resistance of a conventional 4-strand tendon repair to a knotless barbed-suture 4-strand tendon repair.

METHODS

Tendon repairs were performed on 16 cadaver flexor digitorum profundus tendons using either a 4-strand double Kessler repair or a similar but knotless 4-strand repair with a unidirectional barbed suture. Work of flexion, gap resistance during cyclical loading, and ultimate strength of both techniques were determined and their means compared.

RESULTS

There was no difference in mean maximum load and gap formation between the 2 techniques. Work of flexion was higher for the barbed-suture repair group compared with the traditional repair group (39 N·mm vs 31 N·mm).

CONCLUSIONS

The higher work of flexion in the barbed-suture group suggests that barbed suture may negatively affect tendon gliding within the flexor tendon sheath.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Knotless barbed-suture tendon repair leads to increased work of flexion compared with traditional flexor tendon repairs, which may result in an increased rupture incidence.

Barbed suture vs conventional tenorrhaphy: biomechanical analysis in an animal model

Background

The advantages of barbed suture for tendon repair could be to eliminate the need for a knot and to better distribute the load throughout the tendon so as to reduce the deformation at the repair site. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the breaking force and the repair site deformation of a new barbed tenorrhaphy technique in an animal model.

Materials and methods

Sixty porcine flexor tendons were divided randomly into three groups and repaired with one of the following techniques: a new 4-strand barbed technique using 2/0 polypropylene Quill™ SRS or 2/0 polydioxanone Quill™ SRS and a modified Kessler technique using 3/0 prolene. All tendons underwent mechanical testing to assess the 2-mm gap formation force, the breaking force and the mode of failure. The percentage change in tendon cross-sectional area before and after repair was calculated.

Results

The two-sample Student t-test demonstrated a significant increase in 2-mm gap formation force and in breaking force with barbed sutures, independently from suture material, when compared to traditional Kessler suture. Concerning the tendon profile, we registered less bunching at the repair site in the two barbed groups compared with the Kessler group.

Conclusions

This study confirms the promising results achieved in previous ex vivo studies about the use of barbed suture in flexor tendon repair. In our animal model, tenorrhaphy with Quill™ SRS suture guarantees a breaking force of repair that exceeds the 40–50 N suggested as sufficient to initiate early active motion, and a smoother profile at the repair site.

Level of evidence Not applicable.

Biomechanical analysis of flexor tendon repair using knotted Kessler and Bunnell techniques and the knotless Bunnell technique

PURPOSE

To evaluate a knotless Bunnell suture in flexor tendon repair.

METHODS

Eighty porcine flexor digitorum tendons were assigned to 4 different suture techniques. Group 1 was repaired using a modified 4-strand knotted Kessler suture and served as a control group. Group 2 was repaired using a 4-strand knotted Bunnell suture. Group 3 used a 4-strand knotless Bunnell suture. Group 4 used a 4-strand knotless Bunnell and knotless peripheral suture. Under static and cyclic testing we studied mode of failure, 2-mm gap formation force, displacement, and maximum load.

RESULTS

The 4-strand knotless Bunnell suture did not show a notable difference with regard to 2-mm gap formation force, displacement, or maximum load in comparison to the modified 4-strand knotted Kessler suture. Adding a knotless peripheral suture improved the repair by a significant reduction of gap formation and displacement and an increase in maximum load. The 4-strand knotted Bunnell showed the highest maximum load but also a considerable lower resistance to gap formation and major displacement.

CONCLUSIONS

Flexor tendon repair using a 4-strand knotless Bunnell suture showed similar tensile strength to a modified 4-strand knotted Kessler suture. Adding a knotless peripheral suture further improved the repair.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

A complete knotless 4-strand Bunnell suture including a barbed core- and peripheral suture might be an option for flexor tendon reconstruction.

Suture material for flexor tendon repair: 3-0 V-Loc versus 3-0 Stratafix in a biomechanical comparison ex vivo

Background

Barbed suture material offers the possibility of knotless flexor tendon repair, as suggested in an increasing number of biomechanical studies. There are currently two different absorbable barbed suture products available, V-Loc™ and Stratafix™, and both have not been compared to each other with regard to flexor tendon repair. The purpose of this study was to evaluate both suture materials for primary stability under static and cyclic loading in a biomechanical ex vivo model.

Methods

Forty fresh porcine flexor digitorum profundus tendons were randomized in two groups. A four-strand modified Kessler suture technique was used to repair the tendon either with a 3–0 V-Loc™ or 3–0 Stratafix™ without a knot. Parameters of interest were mode of failure, 2-mm gap formation force, displacement, stiffness and maximum load under static and cyclic testing.

Results

The maximum load was 42.3 ± 7.2 for the Stratafix™ group and 50.7 ± 8.8 N for the V-Loc™ group. Thus, the ultimate tensile strength was significantly higher for V-Loc™ (p < 0.05). The 2-mm gap occurred at 24.8 ± 2.04 N in the Stratafix™ group in comparison to 26.5 ± 2.12 N in the V-Loc™ group (n.s.). Displacement was 2.65 ± 0.56 mm in the V-Loc™ group and 2.71 ± 0.59 mm in the Stratafix™ group (n.s.). Stiffness was 4.24 ± 0.68 (N/mm) in the V-Loc™ group and 3.85 ± 0.55 (N/mm) the Stratafix™ group (n.s.). Those measured differences were not significant.

Conclusion

V-Loc™ demonstrates a higher maximum load in tendon reconstruction. The differences in 2-mm gap formation force, displacement and stiffness were not significant. Hereby, the V-Loc™ has an advantage when used as unidirectional barbed suture for knotless flexor tendon repair.