Oxygen Reduction Reaction on Platinum-Terminated “Onion-structured” Alloy Catalysts

Structure-driven tuning of catalytic properties of core-shell nanostructures

The annual increase in demand for renewable energy is driving the development of catalysis-based technologies that generate, store and convert clean energy by splitting and forming chemical bonds. Thanks to efforts over the last two decades, great progress has been made in the use of core-shell nanostructures to improve the performance of metallic catalysts. The successful preparation and application of a large number of bimetallic core-shell nanocrystals demonstrates the wide range of possibilities they offer and suggests further advances in this field. Here, we have reviewed recent advances in the synthesis and study of core-shell nanostructures that are promising for catalysis. Particular attention has been paid to the structural tuning of the catalytic properties of core-shell nanostructures and to theoretical methods capable of describing their catalytic properties in order to efficiently search for new catalysts with desired properties. We have also identified the most promising areas of research in this field, in terms of experimental and theoretical studies, and in terms of promising materials to be studied.

Role of Transition Metals in Pt Alloy Catalysts for the Oxygen Reduction Reaction

In pursuit of higher activity and stability of electrocatalysts toward the oxygen reduction reaction, it has become standard practice to alloy platinum in various structural configurations. Transition metals have been extensively studied for their ability to tune catalyst functionality through strain, ligand, and ensemble effects. The origin of these effects and potential for synergistic application in practical materials have been the subject of many theoretical and experimental analyses in recent years. Here, a comprehensive overview of these phenomena is provided regarding the impact on reaction mechanisms and kinetics through combined experimental and theoretical approaches. Experimental approaches to electrocatalysis are discussed.

Adsorption Energy in Oxygen Electrocatalysis

Adsorption energy (AE) of reactive intermediate is currently the most important descriptor for electrochemical reactions (e.g., water electrolysis, hydrogen fuel cell, electrochemical nitrogen fixation, electrochemical carbon dioxide reduction, etc.), which can bridge the gap between catalyst's structure and activity. Tracing the history and evolution of AE can help to understand electrocatalysis and design optimal electrocatalysts. Focusing on oxygen electrocatalysis, this review aims to provide a comprehensive introduction on how AE is selected as the activity descriptor, the intrinsic and empirical relationships related to AE, how AE links the structure and electrocatalytic performance, the approaches to obtain AE, the strategies to improve catalytic activity by modulating AE, the extrinsic influences on AE from the environment, and the methods in circumventing linear scaling relations of AE. An outlook is provided at the end with emphasis on possible future investigation related to the obstacles existing between adsorption energy and electrocatalytic performance.

Architecture Evolution of Different Nanoparticles Types: Relationship between the Structure and Functional Properties of Catalysts for PEMFC

This review considers the features of the catalysts with different nanoparticle structures architecture transformation under the various pre-treatment types. Based on the results of the publications analysis, it can be concluded that the chemical or electrochemical activation of bimetallic catalysts has a significant effect on their composition, microstructure, and catalytic activity in the oxygen reduction reaction. The stage of electrochemical activation is recommended for use as a mandatory catalyst pre-treatment to obtain highly active de-alloyed materials. The literature is studied, which covers possible variants of the structural modification under the influence of thermal treatment under different processing conditions. Additionally, based on the literature data analysis, recommendations are given for the thermal treatment of catalysts alloyed with various d-metals.

Palladium-platinum core-shell icosahedra with substantially enhanced activity and durability towards oxygen reduction

Conformal deposition of platinum as ultrathin shells on facet-controlled palladium nanocrystals offers a great opportunity to enhance the catalytic performance while reducing its loading. Here we report such a system based on palladium icosahedra. Owing to lateral confinement imposed by twin boundaries and thus vertical relaxation only, the platinum overlayers evolve into a corrugated structure under compressive strain. For the core-shell nanocrystals with an average of 2.7 platinum overlayers, their specific and platinum mass activities towards oxygen reduction are enhanced by eight- and sevenfold, respectively, relative to a commercial catalyst. Density functional theory calculations indicate that the enhancement can be attributed to the weakened binding of hydroxyl to the compressed platinum surface supported on palladium. After 10,000 testing cycles, the mass activity of the core-shell nanocrystals is still four times higher than the commercial catalyst. These results demonstrate an effective approach to the development of electrocatalysts with greatly enhanced activity and durability.

Core-shell catalysts can enhance activity while reducing the loading of expensive catalyst materials. Here, the authors report a palladium@platinum system in which the platinum shells evolve into a corrugated structure with compressive strains, with subsequent enhancement of oxygen reduction activity.

Following ORR intermediates adsorbed on a Pt cathode catalyst during break-in of a PEM fuel cell by in operando X-ray absorption spectroscopy

In operando X-ray absorption spectroscopy data using the Δμ X-ray Absorption Near Edge Spectroscopy (XANES) analysis procedure is used to follow the ORR intermediate adsorbate coverage on a working catalyst in a PEMFC during initial activation and break-in.

The Role of OOH Binding Site and Pt Surface Structure on ORR Activities

We present experimentally observed molecular adsorbate coverages (e.g., O(H), OOH and HOOH) on real operating dealloyed bimetallic PtMx (M = Ni or Co) catalysts under oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) conditions obtained using X-ray absorption near edge spectroscopy (XANES). The results reveal a complex Sabatier catalysis behavior and indicate the active ORR mechanism changes with Pt-O bond weakening from the O2 dissociative mechanism, to the peroxyl mechanism, and finally to the hydrogen peroxide mechanism. An important rearrangement of the OOH binding site, an intermediate in the ORR, enables facile H addition to OOH and faster O-O bond breaking on 111 faces at optimal Pt-O bonding strength, such as that occurring in dealloyed PtM core-shell nanoparticles. This rearrangement is identified by previous DFT calculations and confirmed from in situ measured OOH adsorption coverages during the ORR. The importance of surface structural effects and 111 ordered faces is confirmed by the higher specific ORR rates on solid core vs porous multi-core nanoparticles.

Physical Chemistry Research Toward Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell Advancement

Hydrogen fuel cells, the most common type of which are proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs), are on a rapid path to commercialization. We credit physical chemistry research in oxygen reduction electrocatalysis and theory with significant breakthroughs, enabling more cost-effective fuel cells. However, most of the physical chemistry has been restricted to studies of platinum and related alloys. More work is needed to better understand electrocatalysts generally in terms of properties and characterization. While the advent of such highly active catalysts will enable smaller, less expensive, and more powerful stacks, they will require better understanding and a complete restructuring of the diffusion media in PEMFCs to facilitate faster transport of the reactants (O2) and products (H2O). Even Ohmic losses between materials become more important at high power. Such lessons from PEMFC research are relevant to other electrochemical conversion systems, including Li-air batteries and flow batteries.