Determination of a CD4+CD25−FoxP3+ T cells subset in tumor-draining lymph nodes of colorectal cancer secreting IL-2 and IFN-γ

Exploring the Role of Cellular Interactions in the Colorectal Cancer Microenvironment

Colorectal cancer (CRC) stands as one of the tumors with globally high incidence and mortality rates. In recent years, researchers have extensively explored the role of the tumor immune microenvironment (TME) in CRC, highlighting the crucial influence of immune cell populations in driving tumor progression and shaping therapeutic outcomes. The TME encompasses an array of cellular and noncellular constituents, spanning tumor cells, immune cells, myeloid cells, and tumor-associated fibroblasts, among others. However, the cellular composition within the TME is highly dynamic, evolving throughout different stages of tumor progression. These shifts in cell subpopulation proportions lead to a gradual transition in the immune response, shifting from an early antitumor growth to a late-stage environment that supports tumor survival. Therefore, it is crucial to further investigate and understand the complex interactions among the various cell populations within the TME. In this review, we explore the key cellular components of varying origins, subpopulations with shared origins, and noncellular elements within the CRC TME, examining their interconnections and critical considerations for developing personalized and precise immunotherapy strategies.

Dynamic changes of host immune response during Helicobacter pylori-induced gastric cancer development

INTRODUCTION

Helicobacter pylori infection is the main risk factor for gastric cancer (GC). Chronic inflammation is usually induced by H. pylori infection and is accompanied by inherent immune disorders. However, the dynamic changes in the host immune response associated with the transition from normal to metaplasia, dysplasia, and GC are largely undefined.

METHOD

We established the H. pylori-induced GC mice model. The gastric mucosa of H. pylori-infected mice was subjected to RNA-sequencing analysis at different stages. We analyzed systemic immune disturbances in the spleen and changes in serum inflammatory cytokines during GC development, including gastritis, premalignant lesions (pre-GC), and GC stages.

RESULTS

RNA-sequencing analysis of the gastric mucosa of H. pylori-infected mice highlighted the important role of immune-associated pathways (especially inflammatory pathways) during GC development. Immune cell proportion analysis revealed the stage-dependent involvement of key immune cell types, including increased Th17 cells in early gastritis and pre-GC stages and decreased central memory CD4+ and CD8+ T cells during GC transition. Serum inflammatory cytokine analysis showed that IL-6 and IL-10 levels significantly increased, whereas IL-23 levels decreased during the GC stage.

CONCLUSION

In summary, we illustrated systemic immune disturbances in the spleen and changes in serum inflammatory cytokines during GC development. Th17 cells were involved in early gastritis and premalignant processes, while central memory T cells participated in GC transition. Our findings provide valuable insights into identifying key inflection points and associated biomarkers for the early detection, diagnosis, and treatment of GC.

Potential anti-tumor effects of regulatory T cells in the tumor microenvironment: a review

Regulatory T cells (Tregs) expressing the transcription factor FoxP3 are essential for maintaining immunological balance and are a significant component of the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME). Single-cell RNA sequencing (ScRNA-seq) technology has shown that Tregs exhibit significant plasticity and functional diversity in various tumors within the TME. This results in Tregs playing a dual role in the TME, which is not always centered around supporting tumor progression as typically believed. Abundant data confirms the anti-tumor activities of Tregs and their correlation with enhanced patient prognosis in specific types of malignancies. In this review, we summarize the potential anti-tumor actions of Tregs, including suppressing tumor-promoting inflammatory responses and boosting anti-tumor immunity. In addition, this study outlines the spatial and temporal variations in Tregs function to emphasize that their predictive significance in malignancies may change. It is essential to comprehend the functional diversity and potential anti-tumor effects of Tregs to improve tumor therapy strategies.

Dual Functions of T Lymphocytes in Breast Carcinoma: From Immune Protection to Orchestrating Tumor Progression and Metastasis

Breast cancer (BC) is the most common cancer type in women and the second leading cause of death. Despite recent advances, the mortality rate of BC is still high, highlighting a need to develop new treatment strategies including the modulation of the immune system and immunotherapies. In this regard, understanding the complex function of the involved immune cells and their crosstalk with tumor cells is of great importance. T-cells are recognized as the most important cells in the tumor microenvironment and are divided into several subtypes including helper, cytotoxic, and regulatory T-cells according to their transcription factors, markers, and functions. This article attempts to provide a comprehensive review of the role of T-cell subsets in the prognosis and treatment of patients with BC, and crosstalk between tumor cells and T-cells. The literature overwhelmingly contains controversial findings mainly due to the plasticity of T-cell subsets within the inflammatory conditions and the use of different panels for their phenotyping. However, investigating the role of T-cells in BC immunity depends on a variety of factors including tumor types or subtypes, the stage of the disease, the localization of the cells in the tumor tissue and the presence of different cells or cytokines.

Regulatory and effector T cell subsets in tumor-draining lymph nodes of patients with squamous cell carcinoma of head and neck

Background

A crucial role for the immune system has been proposed in the establishment and progression of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC). In this study, we investigated the cytokine and regulatory profiles of T cells in tumor draining lymph nodes (TDLNs) of patients with HNSCC.

Results

The frequencies of CD4+TNF-α+ and CD4+TNF-αhi negatively were associated with poor prognostic factors such as LN involvement (P = 0.015 and P = 0.019, respectively), stage of the disease (P = 0.032 and P = 0.010, respectively) and tumor size (P = 0.026 and P = 0.032, respectively). Frequencies of CD8+IFN-γ+ and CD8+IFN-γ+ TNF-α+ T cells showed negative relationship with tumor grade (P = 0.035 and P = 0.043, respectively). While, the frequencies of CD4+IL-4+, CD8+IL-10+, CD8+IL-4+T cells were higher in advanced stages of the disease (P = 0.042, P = 0.041 and P = 0.030, respectively) and CD4+IFN-γ+TNF-α−, CD8+IL-4+ and CD8+IFN-γ+TNF-α− T cells were higher in patients with larger tumor size (P = 0.026 and P = 0.032, respectively). Negative associations were found between the frequencies of CD4+CD25+Foxp3+ and CD4+CD25+Foxp3+CD127low/− Treg cells and cancer stage (P = 0.015 and P = 0.059).

Conclusion

This study shed more lights on the changes in immune profile of T cells in TDLNs of HNSCC. Larger tumor size and/or LN involvement were associated with lower frequencies of CD4+TNF-α+, CD8+IFN-γ+ and CD8+IFN-γ+TNF-α+ but higher frequency of CD4+IL-4+ T cells. Moreover, Foxp3+Tregs correlated with good prognostic indicators.

Regulatory T cells express Tumor Necrosis Factor Receptor 2 with the highest intensity among CD4+ T cells in the draining lymph nodes of breast cancer

Tumor Necrosis Factor Receptor 2 (TNFR2) is one of the receptors of TNF-α, which is expressed on various cell types. TNFR2 signaling has a balancing role between regulatory and effector functions of T cells. Herein, we investigated the expression of TNFR2 on regulatory T cells (Tregs) and non-Tregs in breast tumor-draining lymph nodes. Mononuclear cells were isolated from 16 axillary lymph nodes, and the expressions of TNFR2, Foxp3 and CD25 were assessed in CD4⁺ T cells by flow cytometry. Our results showed that the majority of TNFR2⁺CD4⁺ T cells were Foxp3^-CD25^-. However, the percentage of TNFR2⁺ cells was significantly higher in Foxp3⁺CD25⁺CD4⁺ Tregs compared to Foxp3^-CD25^-CD4⁺, Foxp3⁺CD25^-CD4⁺, and Foxp3^-CD25⁺CD4⁺ T cell subsets. Among these subsets, Foxp3⁺CD25⁺TNFR2⁺CD4⁺ T cells were found to have the highest intensity of TNFR2 expression. The intensity of Foxp3 expression in Foxp3⁺CD25⁺TNFR2⁺CD4⁺ Treg cells was significantly higher than in their TNFR2^- counterpart. Collectively, we showed that most of TNFR2⁺CD4⁺ T lymphocytes were Foxp3^-CD25^-, while the majority of Foxp3⁺CD25⁺CD4⁺ Tregs were TNFR2⁺, and they expressed TNFR2 with the highest intensity. This report highlights the importance of TNFR2 expression on Tregs and paves the way for further investigation of the effects of TNF-α on the suppressive activity of Tregs in the tumor microenvironment.

Prognostic significance of CD4-positive regulatory T cells in tumor draining lymph nodes from patients with bladder cancer

Introduction and methods

To clarify the role of CD4⁺ regulatory T cells in bladder cancer, we investigated the frequency of these cells in tumor draining lymph nodes of 50 patients with bladder cancer who underwent radical cystectomy using flow cytometry method. We also assessed their association with prognosis and survival.

Results

On average, 30.13 ± 2.17% of lymphocytes in draining lymph nodes from patients with bladder cancer were positive for both CD4 and FOXP3 molecules. Analyses also showed that 9.92 ± 0.8% of CD4⁺ lymphocytes had a regulatory phenotype (CD4⁺CD25⁺FOXP3⁺CD127^low/neg). The frequency of total CD4⁺FOXP3⁺ lymphocytes as well as regulatory T cells was significantly greater in patients with at least one tumor-involved lymph node compared to those with tumor-free nodes (P = 0.026 and P = 0.036, respectively). Mean FOXP3 expression in CD4⁺ lymphocytes was greater in patients with stage IV compared with those in stage III (P = 0.046). No other significant associations were found between the frequency of regulatory T cells and other clinicopathological characteristics or patient survival.

Conclusions

The increased frequency of regulatory T cells in patients with involved lymph nodes suggests that these cells may negatively regulate antitumor immune responses in draining lymph nodes. Our findings may have implications for immunotherapy-based treatments for bladder cancer.

Significance of TIM-3 expression by CD4+ and CD8+ T lymphocytes in tumor-draining lymph nodes from patients with breast cancer

T cell immunoglobulin and mucin domain-containing protein 3 (TIM-3), which is expressed by immune and nonimmune cells, has been shown to play immunoregulatory roles in the tumor microenvironment. In this study we assessed the expression of TIM-3 by T cells from tumor draining lymph nodes (TDLNs) of patients with breast cancer and its association with disease progression. Lymphocytes were isolated from 41 TDLNs, and flow cytometry was used to determine the expression of TIM-3 on CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells, along with the simultaneous expression of CD25, Foxp3 and TIM-3 in CD4⁺ T cells. The results showed that the frequency of TIM-3⁺CD8⁺ T cells was associated with higher tumor grade, and the geometric mean fluorescence intensity (gMFI) of TIM-3 in CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells was significantly higher in patients with more than 9 involved lymph nodes than those with fewer involved nodes. The gMFI of TIM3 in CD4⁺ T cells also showed a direct correlation with the number of metastatic lymph nodes. Phenotypic characterization of TIM-3⁺CD4⁺ T cells showed that the majority of CD4⁺TIM3⁺ lymphocytes were Foxp3 ^̶ CD25 ^̶, and the majority of Foxp3⁺CD25⁺ regulatory T cells were TIM-3^-. Our findings showed that TIM-3 was expressed by CD4⁺, CD8⁺ and regulatory T cells in breast TDLNs, and that expression on CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells was mostly associated with poor prognosticators such as a higher number of involved lymph nodes or higher tumor grade. More studies are required to confirm TIM-3 as a prognostic marker and a target for immunotherapy in breast cancer.

CD4+CD25-FoxP3+ T cells: a distinct subset or a heterogeneous population?

In addition to generating effective immunity against infectious agents, the immune system helps to fight against different noninfectious human diseases while maintaining the balance between self and non-self discrimination. The breakdown of tolerance in autoimmune diseases or sustainable tolerance in an abnormal microenvironment such as chronic inflammation may initiate the process of malignancy. Immune system regulation is controlled by a complex, dynamic network of cells and mediators. Understanding the cellular and molecular basis of immune regulation provides better insight into the mechanisms governing the immune pathology of diseases. Among several cellular subsets and mediators with regulatory roles, a subpopulation of CD4⁺ T cells was recently reported to be positive for FoxP3 and negative for CD25, with a suggested range of functional activities in both cancer and autoimmune diseases. This CD4 subset was first reported in 2006 and thought to have a role in the pathogenesis of cancer. However, the spectrum of roles played by this T cell subset is broad, and no consensus has been reached regarding its immunological functions. In this review, we focused on the possible origin of CD4⁺CD25^‒FoxP3⁺ T cells and their function in cancer and autoimmune diseases.

Cytokine profile of CD4+CD25-FoxP3+ T cells in tumor-draining lymph nodes from patients with breast cancer

BACKGROUND

A T cell subtype with the CD4+CD25-FoxP3+ phenotype was recently described. We aimed to investigate the frequency of these cells and their ability to produce cytokines in tumor-draining lymph nodes from patients with breast cancer (BC).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Mononuclear cells from lymph nodes of 20 patients with BC were activated and stained for appropriate markers. The cells were assayed with four-color flow cytometry.

RESULTS

A very small fraction of CD4+CD25-FoxP3+ cells produced cytokines at levels that were significantly lower than in the regulatory (CD4+CD25+FoxP3+) and effector cell (CD4+CD25+FoxP3-) subpopulations. The expression of IFNγ and IL-2 in the CD4+CD25-FoxP3+ subset was significantly higher than in Treg cells, but lower than in the effector subset. Conversely, IL-22 expression in Treg cells was significantly higher than in the CD4+CD25-FoxP3+ subpopulation. The expression of IL-10 in the CD4+CD25-FoxP3+ subset was also significantly higher than in effector cells.

CONCLUSION

We suggest that CD4+CD25-FoxP3+ cells in patients with BC are exhausted cells with an intermediate phenotype between effector and regulatory cells.

Helios, CD73 and CD39 Induction in Regulatory T Cells Exposed to Adipose Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cells

Objective

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have prominent immunomodulatory roles in the tumor microenvironment. The current study intended to elucidate Treg subsets and their cytokines after exposing naïve T lymphocytes to adipose- derived MSCs (ASCs).

Materials and Methods

In this experimental study, to obtain ASCs, breast adipose tissues of a breast cancer patient and a normal individual were used. Magnetic cell sorting (MACS) was employed for purifying naïve CD4⁺T cells from peripheral blood of five healthy donors. Naïve CD4⁺T cells were then co-cultured with ASCs for five days. The phenotype of regulatory T cells (Tregs) and production of interleukine-10 (IL-10), transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β) and IL-17 were assessed using flow cytometry and ELISPOT assays, respectively.

Results

CD4⁺CD25^-FOXP3⁺CD45RA⁺Tregs were expanded in the presence of cancer ASCs but CD4⁺CD25⁺Foxp3⁺CD45RA⁺regulatory T cells were up-regulated in the presence of both cancer- and normal-ASCs. This up-regulation was statistically significant in breast cancer-ASCs compared to the cells cultured without ASCs (P=0.002). CD4⁺CD25⁺ FOXP3⁺Helios⁺, CD4⁺CD25^-FOXP3⁺Helios⁺and CD25⁺FOXP3⁺CD73⁺CD39⁺Tregs were expanded after co-culturing of T cells with both cancer-ASCs and normal-ASCs, while they were statistically significant only in the presence of cancer-ASCs (P<0.05). Production of IL-10, IL-17 and TGF-β by T cells was increased in the presence of either normal- or cancer-ASCs; however, significant effect was only observed in the IL-10 and TGF-β of cancer-ASCs (P<0.05).

Conclusion

The results further confirm the immunosuppressive impacts of ASCs on T lymphocytes and direct them to specific regulatory phenotypes which may support immune evasion and tumor growth.

Unveiling a CD70-positive subset of cancer-associated fibroblasts marked by pro-migratory activity and thriving regulatory T cell accumulation

Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) are involved in the proliferative and invasive behavior of colorectal cancer (CRC). Nonetheless, CAFs represent a heterogeneous population with both cancer-promoting and cancer-restraining actions, lacking specific markers to target them. Expression of the immune checkpoint molecule CD70 is normally limited to cells of the lymphoid lineage. Instead, tumor cells hijack CD70 to facilitate immune evasion by increasing the amount of suppressive regulatory T cells (Tregs). The aim of this study was to explore CD70 expression patterns in CRC, not merely focusing on the tumor cells, but also taking the tumor stromal cells into account. We have analyzed the prognostic value of CD70 expression by immunohistochemistry in CRC specimens and its relationship with well-known fibroblast markers and Tregs. In addition, in vitro experiments were conducted to unravel the role of CD70-positive CAFs on migration and immune escape. We reveal prominent expression of CD70 on a specific subset of CAFs in invasive CRC specimens. Cancer cells show almost no expression of CD70. The presence of CD70-positive CAFs proved to be an independent adverse prognostic marker. Functionally, CD70-positive CAFs stimulated migration and significantly increased the frequency of naturally occurring Tregs. In conclusion, we have identified the expression of CD70 on CAFs as a novel prognostic marker for CRC. We have found evidence of a cross talk between CD70⁺ CAFs and naturally occurring Tregs, paving the way towards immune escape. As such, this study provides a strong rationale for the exploration of CD70-targeting antibodies in CRC.

The relative change in regulatory T cells / T helper lymphocytes ratio as parameter for prediction of therapy efficacy in metastatic colorectal cancer patients

Purpose

The evaluation of regulatory T (Treg) (CD4⁺CD25^high CD127^neg) lymphocyte count with respect to the T helper (TH) (CD4) number has been shown to represent the main immune parameters capable of signifying the functional status of the anticancer immunity in cancer patients. This study is aimed to explore a correlation between therapy efficacy and changes in Treg/TH ratio and other biochemical and haematological parameters in patients with metastatic colorectal cancer (mCRC).

Experimental Design

Measurements of regulatory T cells were performed by flow cytometric analysis pre- and post-therapies in a prospective study.

Results

We investigated levels of Treg/TH ratio in the peripheral blood of 25 mCRC patients pre- and post-chemotherapy ± targeted therapy. There were significant differences in levels of Treg/TH ratio pre- and post-treatments among patients on study, patients with partial response (PR), stable disease (SD) and progressive disease (PD) (P= 0.012, P= 0.011, and P= 0.043, respectively). Moreover, the relative change in Treg/TH ratio showed statistically significant difference among patients with PD as compared to those with PR and SD. Our findings demonstrated a statistically significant strong correlation between the relative change in Treg/TH ratio and therapeutic response. (Spearman's rho= 0.788/p<0.001).

Conclusions

The monitoring of the relative change in Treg/TH ratio could constitute a promising clinical index for response prediction and a timely change in regimen. Further prospective evaluations of these parameters investigated, particularly their association with overall survival, are warranted.