Clinical Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics of Imipenem-Cilastatin/Relebactam Combination Therapy

Synthetic approaches and therapeutic applications of FDA-approved antibacterial agents: A comprehensive review from 2003 to 2023

The increasing threat of antibiotic resistance has necessitated the development of new antibacterial agents. 33 novel antibacterial agents have been approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) within the two-decade timeframe from 2003 to 2023. These novel antibacterial agents included new chemical classes, such as lipopeptides, 18-membered macrolides, diaromatic quinolones, and nitroimidazoles, as well as modified existing classes, such as quinolones, tetracyclines, β-lactams, macrolides, oxazolidinones, and aminoglycosides. Nonetheless, during these twenty years, approval for new antibiotics was notably absent in 6 different years, and the total number of antibiotics approved was considerably less than that of other drug classes, including anticancer drugs. In this review, we provide an extensive analysis of the synthetic approaches and therapeutic applications of these approved antibacterial agents. We believe that this review will help further research on potential antibacterial agents for clinical use and development of next generation of antibacterial agents.

Meropenem/Vaborbactam-A Mechanistic Review for Insight into Future Development of Combinational Therapies

Beta-lactam antibiotics have been a major climacteric in medicine for being the first bactericidal compound available for clinical use. They have continually been prescribed since their development in the 1940s, and their application has saved an immeasurable number of lives. With such immense use, the rise in antibiotic resistance has truncated the clinical efficacy of these compounds. Nevertheless, the synergism of combinational antibiotic therapy has allowed these drugs to burgeon once again. Here, the development of meropenem with vaborbactam-a recently FDA-approved beta-lactam combinational therapy-is reviewed in terms of structure rationale, activity gamut, pharmacodynamic/pharmacokinetic properties, and toxicity to provide insight into the future development of analogous therapies.

Carbapenem-Resistant Enterobacteriaceae in Urinary Tract Infections: From Biological Insights to Emerging Therapeutic Alternatives

Urinary tract infections (UTIs) are the second most frequent type of infection observed in clinical practice. Gram-negative Enterobacteriaceae are common pathogens in UTIs. Excessive antibiotic use in humans and animals, poor infection control, and increased global travel have accelerated the spread of multidrug-resistant strains (MDR). Carbapenem antibiotics are commonly considered the last line of defense against MDR Gram-negative bacteria; however, their efficacy is now threatened by the increasing prevalence of carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae (CRE). This comprehensive review aims to explore the biological mechanisms underlying carbapenem resistance and to present a focus on therapeutic alternatives currently available for complicated UTIs (cUTIs). A comprehensive bibliographic search was conducted on the PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus, and Web of Science databases in December 2023. The best evidence on the topic was selected, described, and discussed. Analyzed with particular interest were the clinical trials pivotal to the introduction of new pharmacological treatments in the management of complicated cUTIs. Additional suitable articles were collected by manually cross-referencing the bibliography of previously selected papers. This overview provides a current and comprehensive examination of the treatment options available for CRE infections, offering a valuable resource for understanding this constantly evolving public health challenge.

Novel metallo-β-lactamases inhibitors restore the susceptibility of carbapenems to New Delhi metallo-lactamase-1 (NDM-1)-harbouring bacteria

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

The production of metallo-β-lactamases is a major mechanisms adopted by bacterial pathogens to resist carbapenems. Repurposing approved drugs to restore the efficacy of carbapenems represents an efficient and cost-effective approach to fight infections caused by carbapenem resistant pathogens.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

The nitrocefin hydrolysis assay was employed to screen potential New Delhi metallo-lactamase-1 (NDM-1) inhibitors from a commercially available U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved drug library. The mechanism of inhibition was clarified by metal restoration, inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) and molecular dynamics simulation. The in vitro synergistic antibacterial effect of the identified inhibitors with meropenem was determined by the checkerboard minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) assay, time-dependent killing assay and combined disc test. Three mouse infection models were used to further evaluate the in vivo therapeutic efficacy of combined therapy.

KEY RESULTS

Twelve FDA-approved compounds were initially screened to inhibit the ability of NDM-1 to hydrolyse nitrocefin. Among these compounds, dexrazoxane, embelin, candesartan cilexetil and nordihydroguaiaretic acid were demonstrated to inhibit all tested metallo-β-lactamases and showed an in vitro synergistic bactericidal effect with meropenem against metallo-β-lactamases-producing bacteria. Dexrazoxane, embelin and candesartan cilexetil are metal ion chelating agents, while the inhibition of NDM-1 by nordihydroguaiaretic acid involves its direct binding to the active region of NDM-1. Furthermore, these four drugs dramatically rescued the treatment efficacy of meropenem in three infection models.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Our observations indicated that dexrazoxane, embelin, candesartan cilexetil and nordihydroguaiaretic acid are promising carbapenem adjuvants against metallo-β-lactamases-positive carbapenem resistant bacterial pathogens.

Beneficial herb-drug interaction of rhein in Jinhongtang and Imipenem/Cilastatin mediated by organic anion transporters

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Jinhongtang as a traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) formula, has been widely used as a clinical adjuvant in the treatment of acute abdominal diseases and sepsis. Clinical benefits of the concurrent use of Jinhongtang and antibiotics have been observed, however, the mechanism has not been fully understood.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The present study aimed to explore the effect of Jinhongtang on the antibacterial activity of Imipenem/Cilastatin and to clarify the underlying mechanism of herb-drug interaction (HDI).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A mouse model of sepsis induced by Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) was used to evaluate the pharmacodynamic interaction in vivo. In vitro antibacterial activity of Imipenem/Cilastatin was studied by determining minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimal bactericidal concentration (MBC). Pharmacokinetic interaction was investigated by pharmacokinetic studies in rats and uptake assays using OAT1/3-HEK293 cells. The main constituents ingested into blood of rats were qualitatively identified by UHPLC-Q-TOF-MS.

RESULTS

Mice treated by Imipenem/Cilastatin and Jinhongtang exhibited higher survival rate, lower bacteria load and less inflammation in blood and lung tissues, compared with those treated by Imipenem/Cilastatin alone after injection of S. aureus. However, MIC and MBC of Imipenem/Cilastatin against S. aureus in vitro were not significantly changed in the presence of Jinhongtang. On the contrary, Jinhongtang increased the plasma concentration of Imipenem and decreased its urinary excretion in rats. CL_r of Imipenem was reduced by 58.5%, while its half-life (t_1/2) was prolonged for approximate 1.2 times after coadministered Jinhongtang. Furthermore, the extracts of Jinhongtang, single herb in the prescription, and main absorbable constituents inhibited cellular uptake of probe substrates and Imipenem by OAT1/3-HEK293 cells to different extents. Among them, rhein exhibited the strongest inhibition capacity with IC₅₀ values of 0.08 ± 0.01 μM (OAT1) and 2.86 ± 0.28 μM (OAT3). Moreover, coadministration of rhein also significantly enhanced the antibacterial activity of Imipenem/Cilastatin in sepsis mice.

CONCLUSION

Concomitant administration of Jinhongtang enhanced antibacterial activity of Imipenem/Cilastatin in sepsis mice induced by S. aureus through reducing renal elimination of Imipenem via inhibition of OATs. Our investigation provided the insight of Jinhongtang as an effective supplement to enhance the antibacterial activity of Imipenem/Cilastatin and can be useful for future clinical studies.

Biochemical exploration of β-lactamase inhibitors

The alarming rise of microbial resistance to antibiotics has severely limited the efficacy of current treatment options. The prevalence of β-lactamase enzymes is a significant contributor to the emergence of antibiotic resistance. There are four classes of β-lactamases: A, B, C, and D. Class B is the metallo-β-lactamase, while the rest are serine β-lactamases. The clinical use of β-lactamase inhibitors began as an attempt to combat β-lactamase-mediated resistance. Although β-lactamase inhibitors alone are ineffective against bacteria, research has shown that combining inhibitors with antibiotics is a safe and effective treatment that not only prevents β-lactamase formation but also broadens the range of activity. These inhibitors may cause either temporary or permanent inhibition. The development of new β-lactamase inhibitors will be a primary focus of future research. This study discusses recent advances in our knowledge of the biochemistry behind β-lactam breakdown, with special emphasis on the mechanism of inhibitors for β-lactam complexes with β-lactamase. The study also focuses on the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of all inhibitors and then applies them in clinical settings. Our analysis and discussion of the challenges that exist in designing inhibitors might help pharmaceutical researchers address root issues and develop more effective inhibitors.

β-Lactam Antibiotics and β-Lactamase Enzymes Inhibitors, Part 2: Our Limited Resources

β-lactam antibiotics (BLAs) are crucial molecules among antibacterial drugs, but the increasing emergence of resistance to them, developed by bacteria producing β-lactamase enzymes (BLEs), is becoming one of the major warnings to the global public health. Since only a small number of novel antibiotics are in development, a current clinical approach to limit this phenomenon consists of administering proper combinations of β-lactam antibiotics (BLAs) and β-lactamase inhibitors (BLEsIs). Unfortunately, while few clinically approved BLEsIs are capable of inhibiting most class-A and -C serine β-lactamases (SBLEs) and some carbapenemases of class D, they are unable to inhibit most part of the carbapenem hydrolyzing enzymes of class D and the worrying metallo-β-lactamases (MBLEs) of class B. Particularly, MBLEs are a set of enzymes that catalyzes the hydrolysis of a broad range of BLAs by a zinc-mediated mechanism, and currently no clinically available molecule capable of inhibiting MBLEs exists. Additionally, new types of alarming "superbugs", were found to produce the New Delhi metallo-β-lactamases (NDMs) encoded by increasing variants of a plasmid-mediated gene capable of rapidly spreading among bacteria of the same species and even among different species. Particularly, NDM-1 possesses a flexible hydrolysis mechanism that inactivates all BLAs, except for aztreonam. The present review provides first an overview of existing BLAs and the most clinically relevant BLEs detected so far. Then, the BLEsIs and their most common associations with BLAs already clinically applied and those still in development are reviewed.

Views, knowledge, and practices of hospital pharmacists about using clinical pharmacokinetics to optimize pharmaceutical care services: a cross-sectional study

Background

Pharmacokinetics (PK) is often used to optimize individualized dosing regimens of some drugs. This study was conducted to determine views, knowledge, and practices of hospital pharmacists in Palestine about using clinical PK to optimize pharmaceutical care services.

Method

This study was conducted in a cross-sectional design using a questionnaire. The questionnaire collected information about the nature of PK courses taught to hospital pharmacists, importance, relevance, effectiveness, adequacy, and depth of these courses, adequacy of PK skills, implementing PK knowledge/skills in current practice, and barriers limiting the implementation of PK to optimize pharmaceutical care services for hospitalized patients. The hospital pharmacists were visited in their places of work and were asked to complete the questionnaire in privacy. Categorical data were compared using Kruskal-Wallis test or Mann-Whitney U tests.

Results

The questionnaire was completed by 145 hospital pharmacists. Of the pharmacists, 84 (57.9%) received basic PK courses, 79 (54.5%) were taught integrated PK courses, and 94 (64.8%) agreed that the PK courses were important to their current practice. Similarly, 85 (57.9%) of the pharmacists were not satisfied with the teaching methods and contents of the PK courses. Pharmacists who obtained their degrees from Palestine were less satisfied with the methods of teaching compared to those who obtained their degrees from foreign countries (p-value = 0.006). Only 25 (17.2%) pharmacists reported frequent use of PK knowledge in their current practice. Lack of practical knowledge and continuing education, poor understanding of PK by pharmacists and other healthcare professionals were identified as barriers limiting the implementation of PK in optimizing pharmaceutical care services to hospitalized patients.

Conclusion

The hospital pharmacists were generally not satisfied with the way PK courses were taught and expressed difficulty in implementing PK knowledge and skills to improve pharmaceutical care services to hospitalized patients. Integrating PK topics within other relevant courses and adopting more clinically oriented learning methods could improve understanding and implementing PK knowledge and skills in optimizing pharmaceutical services to hospitalized patients. Further studies are still needed to determine the optimal teaching/learning methods that can improve knowledge and skill acquisitions of pharmacists in the area of PK.

Recommendations to Synthetize Old and New β-Lactamases Inhibitors: A Review to Encourage Further Production

The increasing emergence of bacteria producing β-lactamases enzymes (BLEs), able to inactivate the available β-lactam antibiotics (BLAs), causing the hydrolytic opening of their β-lactam ring, is one of the global major warnings. According to Ambler classification, BLEs are grouped in serine-BLEs (SBLEs) of class A, C, and D, and metal-BLEs (MBLEs) of class B. A current strategy to restore no longer functioning BLAs consists of associating them to β-lactamase enzymes inhibitors (BLEsIs), which, interacting with BLEs, prevent them hydrolyzing to the associated antibiotic. Worryingly, the inhibitors that are clinically approved are very few and inhibit only most of class A and C SBLEs, leaving several class D and all MBLEs of class B untouched. Numerous non-clinically approved new molecules are in development, which have shown broad and ultra-broad spectrum of action, some of them also being active on the New Delhi metal-β-lactamase-1 (NDM-1), which can hydrolyze all available BLAs except for aztreonam. To not duplicate the existing review concerning this topic, we have herein examined BLEsIs by a chemistry approach. To this end, we have reviewed both the long-established synthesis adopted to prepare the old BLEsIs, those proposed to achieve the BLEsIs that are newly approved, and those recently reported to prepare the most relevant molecules yet in development, which have shown high potency, providing for each synthesis the related reaction scheme.

Old and New Beta-Lactamase Inhibitors: Molecular Structure, Mechanism of Action, and Clinical Use

The β-lactams have a central place in the antibacterial armamentarium, but the increasing resistance to these drugs, especially among Gram-negative bacteria, is becoming one of the major threats to public health worldwide. Treatment options are limited, and only a small number of novel antibiotics are in development. However, one of the responses to this threat is the combination of β-lactam antibiotics with β-lactamase inhibitors, which are successfully used in the clinic for overcoming resistance by inhibiting β-lactamases. The existing inhibitors inactivate most of class A and C serine β-lactamases, but several of class D and B (metallo-β-lactamase) are resistant. The present review provides the status and knowledge concerning current β-lactamase inhibitors and an update on research efforts to identify and develop new and more efficient β-lactamase inhibitors.

Durlobactam, a New Diazabicyclooctane β-Lactamase Inhibitor for the Treatment of Acinetobacter Infections in Combination With Sulbactam

Durlobactam is a new member of the diazabicyclooctane class of β-lactamase inhibitors with broad spectrum activity against Ambler class A, C, and D serine β-lactamases. Sulbactam is a first generation β-lactamase inhibitor with activity limited to a subset of class A enzymes that also has direct-acting antibacterial activity against Acinetobacter spp. The latter feature is due to sulbactam’s ability to inhibit certain penicillin-binding proteins, essential enzymes involved in bacterial cell wall synthesis in this pathogen. Because sulbactam is also susceptible to cleavage by numerous β-lactamases, its clinical utility for the treatment of contemporary Acinetobacter infections is quite limited. However, when combined with durlobactam, the activity of sulbactam is effectively restored against these notoriously multidrug-resistant strains. This sulbactam-durlobactam combination is currently in late-stage development for the treatment of Acinectobacter infections, including those caused by carbapenem-resistant isolates, for which there is a high unmet medical need. The following mini-review summarizes the molecular drivers of efficacy of this combination against this troublesome pathogen, with an emphasis on the biochemical features of each partner.

Synthetic Approaches to the New Drugs Approved during 2019

New drugs introduced to the market are privileged structures having affinities for biological targets implicated in human diseases and conditions. These new chemical entities (NCEs), particularly small molecules and antibody-drug conjugates, provide insight into molecular recognition and simultaneously function as leads for the design of future medicines. This review is part of a continuing series presenting the most likely process-scale synthetic approaches to 40 NCEs approved for the first time anywhere in the world in 2019.

Novel Beta-Lactam/Beta-Lactamase Plus Metronidazole vs Carbapenem for Complicated Intra-abdominal Infections: A Meta-analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials

Background

Complicated intra-abdominal infections (cIAIs) remain a leading cause of death in surgical wards, in which antibiotic treatment is crucial. We aimed to compare the efficacy and safety of novel β-lactam/β-lactamase inhibitors (BL/BLIs) in combination with metronidazole and carbapenems in the treatment of cIAIs.

Methods

A comprehensive search of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) was performed using Medline, Embase, and Cochrane Library, which compared the efficacy and safety of novel BL/BLIs and carbapenems for the treatment of cIAIs.

Results

Six RCTs consisting of 2254 patients were included. The meta-analysis showed that novel BL/BLIs in combination with metronidazole had a lower clinical success rate (risk difference [RD], -0.05; 95% CI, -0.07 to -0.02; I ² = 0%) and a lower microbiological success rate (RD, -0.04; 95% CI, -0.08 to -0.00; I ² = 0%). No difference was found between the 2 groups in incidence of adverse events (RD, 0.02; 95% CI, -0.01 to 0.06; I ² = 0%), serious adverse events (SAEs; RD, 0.01; 95% CI, -0.02 to 0.03; I ² = 0%), or mortality (RD, 0.01; 95% CI, -0.00 to 0.02). However, ceftazidime/avibactam had a higher risk of vomiting (RD, 0.03; 95% CI, 0.01 to 0.05; I ² = 47%), and the ceftolozane/tazobactam subgroup showed a higher incidence of SAEs (RD, 0.12; 95% CI, 0.01 to 0.03).

Conclusions

The efficacy of novel BL/BLIs in combination with metronidazole was not as high as that of carbapenems. Although no significant differences were found with respect to overall adverse events, SAEs, or mortality, the novel BL/BLIs has a higher risk of vomiting. We still need to be cautious about the clinical application of a new anti-infective combination.

Trial registration

PROSPERO ID: 42020166061.