Breakfast consumption pattern and its association with overweight and obesity among university students: a population-based study

Eating behaviors associated with weight gain among university students worldwide and treatment interventions: A systematic review

Introduction: Emerging adulthood has been described as a period of risk for body weight gain. Several studies have indicated that the positive or negative health behaviors established during this stage, tend to prevail the rest of life. However, there are discrepancies in published studies on weight change in freshmen and there are disagreements on weight gain predictors. The present study reviewed the literature with the aim of knowing the eating behaviors associated with weight gain in university students. Method: A systematic search was conducted in three databases according to the PRISMA method during the months of February to November 2020. Results: 20 articles were included in the review. The main behaviors associated with weight gain were the consumption of sugary drinks, alcohol consumption, low consumption of vegetables and fruits, frequent self-consumption, eating unhealthy and low levels of food regulation.

Association of combined healthy lifestyle with general and abdominal obesity

Background

Data linking joint healthy lifestyle factors to general and abdominal obesity are scarce, in particular in the Middle East. The aim of this study was to examine the association of combined healthy lifestyle factors with general and abdominal obesity in a large population of Iranian adults.

Methods

This cross-sectional study was done on 3,172 Iranian adults aged ≥18 years. We constructed healthy lifestyle score using information on dietary intakes, physical activity, smoking status, and psychological distress. To evaluate components of healthy lifestyle, we applied a validated 106-item semi-quantitative Food Frequency Questionnaire (FFQ), General Practice Physical Activity Questionnaire (GPPAQ), General Health Questionnaire (GHQ), and other pre-tested questionnaires. General obesity was defined as having a body mass index (BMI) ≥30 kg/m2 and abdominal obesity as a waist circumference (WC) of ≥102 cm in men and ≥88 cm in women.

Results

Mean age of participants was 36.54 ± 7.97 years. General and abdominal obesity were prevalent among 8.7% and 21.5% of study participants, respectively. Linear analysis showed a significant positive relationship between healthy lifestyle score and BMI among men (β: 0.30, 95% CI: 0.05, 0.54). However, no significant association was found between healthy lifestyle and abdominal obesity in men. Among women, one score increase in healthy lifestyle score was associated with a reduction of 0.65 cm in WC. In terms of individual components of healthy lifestyle, we found that low-distressed women had lower odds of abdominal obesity compared with high-distressed women.

Conclusion

We found a significant inverse association between healthy lifestyle and WC among women. However, healthy lifestyle was positively associated with BMI among men.

Causal relationship between breakfast skipping and bone mineral density: a two-sample Mendelian randomized study

Objective

To explore the causal association between breakfast skipping and bone mineral density (BMD) through two-sample Mendelian randomisation (MR) analysis.

Methods

A two-sample MR approach was adopted to explore the causal relationship of breakfast skipping with BMDs (across three skeletal sites and five age groups). Publicly available genome-wide association study summary data were used for MR analysis. We used five methods to estimate the causal associations between breakfast skipping and BMDs: inverse-variance weighting (IVW), MR-Egger, weighted median, simple mode, and weighted mode. IVW was used for the main analysis and the remaining four methods were used as supplementary analyses. The heterogeneity of the MR results was determined using IVW and MR-Egger methods. The pleiotropy of the MR results was determined using MR-Egger intercept. Furthermore, a leave-one-out test was performed to determine whether the MR results were affected by a single nucleotide polymorphism.

Results

With the IVW method, we did not find any causal relationship between breakfast skipping and forearm, femoral neck, and lumbar spine BMD. Subsequently, when we included BMD data stratified by five different age groups in the analysis, the results showed that there was no apparent causal effect between breakfast skipping and age-stratified BMD. This finding was supported by all four supplementary methods (P > 0.05 for all methods). No heterogeneity or horizontal pleiotropy was detected in any of the analyses (P > 0.05). The leave-one-out tests conducted in the analyses did not identify any single nucleotide polymorphism that could have influenced the MR results, indicating the reliability of our findings.

Conclusion

No causal effect was found between breakfast skipping and BMD (across three skeletal sites and five age groups).

Associations of body mass index with severe outcomes of COVID-19 among critically ill elderly patients: A prospective study

Background and Aim

Few studies assessed the associations of overweight and obesity with severe outcomes of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) among elderly patients. This study was conducted to assess overweight and obesity in relation to risk of mortality, delirium, invasive mechanical ventilation (IMV) requirement during treatment, re-hospitalization, prolonged hospitalization, and ICU admission among elderly patients with COVID-19.

Methods

This was a single-center prospective study that was done on 310 elderly patients with COVID-19 hospitalized in the intensive care unit (ICU). We collected data on demographic characteristics, laboratory parameters, nutritional status, blood pressure, comorbidities, medications, and types of mechanical ventilation at baseline. Patients were followed up during ICU admission and until 45 days after the first visit, and data on delirium incidence, mortality, need for a form of mechanical ventilation, discharge day from ICU and hospital, and re-hospitalization were recorded for each patient.

Results

During the follow-up period, we recorded 190 deaths, 217 cases of delirium, and 35 patients who required IMV during treatment. After controlling for potential confounders, a significant association was found between obesity and delirium such that obese patients with COVID-19 had a 62% higher risk of delirium compared with normal-weight patients (HR: 1.62, 95% CI: 1.02-2.57). This association was not observed for overweight. In terms of other outcomes including ICU/45-day mortality, IMV therapy during treatment, re-hospitalization, prolonged hospitalization, and ICU admission, we found no significant association with overweight and obesity either before or after controlling for potential confounders.

Conclusion

We found that obesity may be a risk factor for delirium among critically ill elderly patients with COVID-19.

Predictors Of Breakfast Consumption Among Iranian Students: Applying Social Cognitive Theory

Background — Despite the known significance of regular breakfast consumption, skipping or inadequate consumption of breakfast is common among students. Social cognitive theory (SCT) is one of the most effective theories in predicting nutritional behaviors, especially breakfast-related behaviors Objective — This study aimed to determine the factors related to breakfast consumption based on SCT among students of Islamic Azad University Kermanshah Branch. Methods — In this cross-sectional study, 206 students of Islamic Azad University Kermanshah Branch were selected based on availability sampling. An online questionnaire consisting of demographic information scales, SCT variables and breakfast consumption behavior was sent to student groups. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistical tests, chi-square test, linear regression and correlation analysis in SPSS software version 16. Results — On average, students consume breakfast 4.39 times a week. Overall, 17.6% of students had completely ignored breakfast and 42.4% of them ate breakfast irregularly between one and six times a week. Among the components of social cognitive theory, self-efficacy and observational learning predicted 55.7% of changes in breakfast consumption among students (P<0.001). Conclusions — It seems that social cognitive theory is a useful framework for predicting breakfast consumption behavior among young people, and it is possible to improve breakfast consumption behavior by designing and implementing appropriate educational interventions based on this theory.

Breakfast Skipping among a Multi-Ethnic Population of Young Men and Relationship with Sociodemographic Determinants and Weight Status

Breakfast skipping is linked with obesity incidence. This study was conducted to assess the prevalence of breakfast skipping among a multi-ethnic population of young men residing in Saudi Arabia and its relationship with sociodemographic determinants and weight status. A total of 3600 young men aged 20 to 35 years and living in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, were involved in this cross-sectional study. Sociodemographic determinants and breakfast-consumption frequency were collected from subjects by personal interviews. This study defines breakfast skipping as skipping breakfast at least one day per week. Weight and height were measured following standardized methods. The prevalence of breakfast skipping was observed among 52.8% of the study subjects. Nationality was a predictor of breakfast skipping, with the lowest and highest rates of breakfast skipping reported among young men from Bangladesh (14.0%) and Saudi Arabia (86.5%), respectively. Weight status was another predictor of breakfast skipping, as the mean body mass index for breakfast skippers (25.4 kg/m2) was significantly (p-value < 0.001) higher than that for breakfast consumers (24.8 kg/m2). Overweight/obese subjects have a significantly higher rate of breakfast skipping (56.9%) than underweight/normal weight subjects (48.9%). In conclusion, breakfast skipping prevalence is relatively high among young men residing in Saudi Arabia. The findings confirm a relationship between breakfast skipping and sociodemographic determinants and weight status.

Breakfast Skipping in a Multi-Ethnic Population of Middle-Aged Men and Relationship With Sociodemographic Variables and Weight Status

Background

Breakfast eating is regarded to be necessary for maintaining a healthy body weight. On the other hand, breakfast skipping has been linked with obesity incidence. This study was carried out to determine the prevalence of breakfast skipping among a multi-ethnic group of middle-aged men living in Saudi Arabia and the association between breakfast skipping and sociodemographic variables and weight status.

Methods

This cross-sectional study included 1,800 middle-aged men aged 36–59 years. Participants' sociodemographic information and frequency of breakfast eating were obtained through personal interviews. The body mass index was determined after measuring body weight and height using standardized methods.

Results

The prevalence of breakfast skipping was 42.1% of the study participants. Nationality was a predictor of breakfast skipping. Bangladeshi participants (N = 100) have the lowest rate of breakfast skipping (9.0%), whilst Saudi participants (N = 161) have the highest rate (73.3%). Weight status was another predictor of breakfast skipping as breakfast skippers had a significantly higher average body mass index (27.1 ± 3.8) than breakfast consumers (26.2 ± 3.5). Overweight/obese participants have a significantly higher breakfast skipping rate (44.9%) than participants with underweight/normal weight (36.6%).

Conclusion

The rate of breakfast skipping is relatively high among middle-aged men living in Saudi Arabia. The data support a link between breakfast skipping and sociodemographic variables and weight status.

Association of personal characteristics and cooking skills with vegetable consumption frequency among university students

Most university students are transitioning to adulthood, and tend to adopt unhealthy eating habits characterised by a low intake of fruits and vegetables. Few studies have specifically addressed the consumption of vegetables, which have a high content of minerals, fibre, and active compounds. The aim of this investigation was to assess vegetable consumption frequency among university students in a Brazilian capital and examine associations with individual characteristics and cooking skills. This crosssectional study used a online questionnaire to collect data. Cooking skills were evaluated in eight dimensions. Vegetable consumption was recorded in five frequency groups and then categorised into daily and non-daily consumption. Data were subjected to Pearson's chi-squared or analysis of variance followed by Bonferroni post hoc test. Associations between cooking skill dimensions and daily vegetable consumption were identified by crude and adjusted logistic regression analyses.Adjustment was performed for sex, age, paternal education, and overweight/obesity.Results are expressed as odds ratios (p < 0.05). Less than half of the respondents (N = 237; 45%) reported consuming vegetables daily. Higher level of paternal education, not being overweight or obese, and higher scores on seven cooking skill dimensions were positively associated with daily vegetable consumption. Given the scarcity of research on the topic, the findings of this study make a significant contribution to knowledge and may support public health strategies for promoting vegetable consumption among university students.

Fruit and vegetable consumption in relation to primary headaches: the MEPHASOUS study

BACKGROUND

Fruit and vegetable consumption may beneficially affect the odds of primary headaches due to their antioxidant contents. However, no study has examined the association between fruit and vegetable consumption and primary headaches among university students.

AIM

To assess the relation between fruit and vegetable intakes and primary headaches among Iranian university students.

METHODS

Overall, 83,214 university students with an age range of ≥ 18 years participated in the present study. Dietary intakes and also data on confounding variables were collected using validated questionnaires. Data on dietary intakes were collected using a validated dietary habits questionnaire. We used the International Classification of Headache Disorders-3 (ICHD-3) criteria to define primary headaches.

RESULTS

Fruit consumption was negatively associated with primary headaches; such that after controlling for potential confounders, greater intake of fruits was associated with 30% lower odds of primary headaches (OR: 0.70, 95% CI 0.58-0.84). Such an inverse association was also found for vegetable consumption. In the fully adjusted model, students in the top category of vegetable consumption were 16% less likely to have primary headaches compared with those in the bottom category (OR: 0.84, 95% CI 0.74-0.95). Subgroup analysis revealed that fruit consumption was inversely associated with primary headaches in females, unlike males, and vegetable consumption was inversely associated with these headaches in males, as opposed to females. Moreover, fruit and vegetable consumption was related to lower odds of primary headaches in normal-weight students.

CONCLUSION

Fruit and vegetable intakes were associated with reduced odds of primary headaches.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level III, cross-sectional analytic studies.

Health-Risk Behaviors and Dietary Patterns Among Jordanian College Students: A Pilot Study

Background/Aims: Health promotion and the incorporation of health-protective behaviors in people's lifestyles have a great role in enhancing individuals' overall health and well-being. College students are at increased risk of developing unhealthy dietary and lifestyle behaviors. A cross-sectional pilot study was conducted to assess the health-risk behaviors among undergraduate college students at Jordan University of Science and Technology. Methods: The final sample included 136 students, with a mean age of 21.1 ± 2.37 years, mostly females (69%). A self-reported questionnaire was used for data collection about dietary and lifestyle behaviors among college students. The questionnaire consisted of four parts: sociodemographic characteristics, body weight classifications, lifestyle behaviors, and dietary patterns and intake, and eating behaviors. Results: Most of the students did not meet the daily recommendations for fruit (76%) and vegetable (82%) intake. Males were significantly consuming fast food more frequently (p = 0.019), and smoked cigarettes (p < 0.001) or hookah (p = 0.015) more frequently than did females. Further, the majority met the recommendations for physical activity (81%), but exceeded recommendations for sedentary behavior. Females were more likely to have normal weight or be underweight (OR = 4.865), to have a fear of weight gain (OR = 3.387), and to have the recommended sleeping hours (OR = 7.685) than were males. Conclusion: The results indicate the health-risk behaviors and the gender-related differences among college students.

Association between Breakfast Skipping and Body Weight-A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Observational Longitudinal Studies

Globally, increasing rates of obesity are one of the most important health issues. The association between breakfast skipping and body weight is contradictory between cross-sectional and interventional studies. This systematic review and meta-analysis aims to summarize this association based on observational longitudinal studies. We included prospective studies on breakfast skipping and overweight/obesity or weight change in adults. The literature was searched until September 2020 in PubMed and Web of Science. Summary risk ratios (RRs) or β coefficients with a 95% confidence interval (CI), respectively, were estimated in pairwise meta-analyses by applying a random-effects model. In total, nine studies were included in the systematic review and three of them were included in the meta-analyses. The meta-analyses indicated an 11% increased RR for overweight/obesity when breakfast was skipped on ≥3 days per week compared to ≤2 days per week (95% CI: 1.04, 1.19, n = two studies). The meta-analysis on body mass index (BMI) change displayed no difference between breakfast skipping and eating (β = −0.02; 95% CI: −0.05, 0.01; n = two studies). This study provides minimal evidence that breakfast skipping might lead to weight gain and the onset of overweight and obesity.

Health Behaviors of Higher Education Students from 7 Countries: Poorer Sleep Quality during the COVID-19 Pandemic Predicts Higher Dietary Risk

Health behaviors of higher education students can be negatively influenced by stressful events. The global COVID-19 pandemic presents a unique opportunity to characterize and compare health behaviors across multiple countries and to examine how these behaviors are shaped by the pandemic experience. Undergraduate and graduate students enrolled in universities in China, Ireland, Malaysia, South Korea, Taiwan, the Netherlands and the United States (USA) were recruited into this cross-sectional study. Eligible students filled out an online survey comprised of validated tools for assessing sleep quality and duration, dietary risk, alcohol misuse and physical activity between late April and the end of May 2020. Health behaviors were fairly consistent across countries, and all countries reported poor sleep quality. However, during the survey period, the COVID-19 pandemic influenced the health behaviors of students in European countries and the USA more negatively than Asian countries, which could be attributed to the differences in pandemic time course and caseloads. Students who experienced a decline in sleep quality during the COVID-19 pandemic had higher dietary risk scores than students who did not experience a change in sleep quality (p = 0.001). Improved sleep quality was associated with less sitting time (p = 0.010). Addressing sleep issues among higher education students is a pressing concern, especially during stressful events. These results support the importance of making education and behavior-based sleep programming available for higher education students in order to benefit students' overall health.

Breakfast consumption and mental health: a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies

OBJECTIVE

Several studies have been conducted on the relationship between breakfast consumption and mental health with conflicting results. Therefore, the present systematic review and meta-analysis was undertaken to summarize evidences on the association between skipping breakfast and mental health.

METHODS

We searched online databases for all related papers through the comprehensive international data bases of Institute of PubMed/ MEDLINE, ISI/WOS and Scopus up to December 2019, using relevant keywords. Overall, 14 studies were included in this systematic review and meta-analysis.

RESULTS

The total sample size of all selected studies was 399,550 individuals with age range of 6 to ≥65 years old. We found a significant positive association between skipping breakfast and Odds Ratio (OR) of depression (pooled OR: 1.39; 95% CI: 1.34-1.44), stress (pooled OR: 1.23; 95% CI: 1.04-1.43) and psychological distress (pooled OR: 1.55; 95% CI: 1.47-1.62). In contrast, there was no significant association between skipping breakfast and anxiety in all age cohort (pooled OR: 1.31; 95% CI: 0.97-1.65). However, subgroup analysis based on age stratification showed that there was a significant positive association between skipping breakfast and anxiety in adolescences (pooled OR: 1.51; 95% CI: 1.25-1.77).

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, skipping breakfast was positively associated with odds of depression, stress and psychological distress in all age groups and anxiety in adolescence, underlining impact of breakfast on mental health.

Breakfast-Based Dietary Patterns and Obesity in Tehranian Adults

BACKGROUND

Breakfast is an important meal of the day that contributes to an overall healthy dietary pattern, better nutrient intake, and diet quality. This study sought to investigate the relationship between breakfast patterns and general and central obesity among middle-aged adults.

METHODS

In this cross-sectional study of 840 apparently healthy women and men, aged 20-59 years, we assessed usual dietary intake by means of three 24-hour dietary recalls and we took anthropometric measurements. Dietary patterns were subsequently identified by factor analysis. To assess the association between breakfast composition and central and general obesity, logistic regression analysis was performed.

RESULTS

We identified three major dietary patterns by factor analysis: the "bread and grains, meat products, and coffee" dietary pattern, the "sweets, tea and coffee" dietary pattern, and the "fruits, vegetables, and eggs" dietary pattern. Those people in the third tertile of the "sweets, tea and coffee" dietary category had a greater chance of having central obesity (odds ratio, 1.80; 95% confidence interval, 1.25-2.59; P=0.001). Moreover, higher adherence to the "bread and grains, meat products, and coffee" pattern increased the chance of central obesity (odds ratio, 1.67; 95% confidence interval, 1.47-1.97; P=0.03).

CONCLUSION

Overall, our results suggest that specific breakfast dietary patterns are associated with increased odds of central obesity in Iranian adults.

The relationship between lifestyle and anthropometric factors with the sleep characteristics among university students in Iran: the MEPHASOUS study

Background

Healthy sleep habits have an important role in normal cognitive function, emotional performance, and well-being. The aims of this study were to describe the characteristics of sleep among university students in Iran. In addition, we assessed the relationship between lifestyle and anthropometric factors with the sleep characteristics.

Methods

This population-based cross-sectional study was conducted using the data of "Mental and Physical Health Assessment of University Students in Iran" survey 2012-2013. This survey was conducted on newly admitted students in 74 public universities in 28 provinces. The participants were younger adults. Univariate and multivariate logistic regression models were utilized to recognize associated factors with sleep pattern and range.

Result

Of total 78,848 students who completed the survey, 54.64% (n = 43,079) were females. The average age of the students was 21.53 ± 4.08 and 21.54 ± 3.99 among males and females, respectively. More than 90% (n = 70,923), were non-smokers. Out of the total respondents, 40.56% (n = 31,756) had irregular sleep pattern. Male students were less likely to have irregular sleep pattern than female students.

Conclusion

Our findings indicated that irregular sleep pattern is associated with overweight and obesity. So, these results underscore the need to educate students on importance of healthy sleep pattern and duration on health conditions.

Sugar-sweetened beverages consumption in relation to hypertension among Iranian university students: the MEPHASOUS study

PURPOSE

This study aimed to assess the link between sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs) consumption and hypertension among a large population in the Middle East.

METHODS

In this cross-sectional study (a part of Mental and Physical Health Assessment of University Student: MEPHASOUS study), 66,634 university students from all provinces of Iran, aged ≥ 18 years, were included. A self-administered dietary habits questionnaire was used to assess SSBs consumption as well as other dietary intakes. Participants were categorized based on three levels of SSB consumption: < 1 time/wk, 1-3 times/wk, and ≤ 3 times/wk. Hypertension was defined as systolic blood pressure (SBP) of ≥ 140 and diastolic blood pressure of ≥ 90.

RESULTS

Compared with those in the bottom category, students in the top category of SSBs consumption were more likely to have hypertension (OR 1.71, 95% CI 1.54-1.90). This association remained significant even after adjusting for confounding variables; such that participants in the highest category of SSBs consumption had 2.17 times greater odds of hypertension compared with those in the lowest category (OR 2.17, 95% CI 1.91-2.47). Stratified analysis based on gender and BMI status revealed such significant association in men (OR 2.12, 95% CI 1.79-2.50) and women (OR 2.03, 95% CI 1.67-2.48), and in all categories of BMI including students with underweight (OR 2.53, 95% CI 1.81-3.52), normal-weight (OR 2.13, 95% CI 1.81-2.51), overweight (OR 2.14, 95% CI 1.58-2.89) and obesity (OR 1.59, 95% CI 1.00-2.53).

CONCLUSION

Our results support previous findings indicating a significant positive association between SSBs consumption and hypertension.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level III, cross-sectional analytic studies.

The effect of green coffee extract supplementation on anthropometric measures in adults: A comprehensive systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials

BACKGROUND AND AIM

Two meta-analyses summarized data on the effects of green coffee extract (GCE) supplementation on anthropometric measures. However, the accuracy of those meta-analyses is uncertain due to several methodological limitations. Therefore, we aimed to conduct a comprehensive systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis to summarize all available evidence on the effects of GCE supplementation on anthropometric measures by considering the main limitations in the previous meta-analyses.

METHODS

We searched available online databases for relevant publications up to January 2020, using relevant keywords. All randomized clinical trials (RCTs) investigating the effects of GCE supplementation, compared with a control group, on anthropometric measures [including body weight, body mass index (BMI), body fat percentage, waist circumference (WC) and waist-to-hip ratio (WHR)] were included.

RESULTS

After identifying 1871 studies from our initial search, 15 RCTs with a total sample size of 897 participants were included in the systematic review and meta-analysis. We found a significant reducing effect of GCE supplementation on body weight (weighted mean difference (WMD): -1.23, 95 % CI: -1.64, -0.82 kg,P < 0.001), BMI (WMD: -0.48, 95 % CI: -0.78, -0.18 kg/m², P = 0.001), and WC (WMD: -1.00, 95 % CI: -1.70, -0.29 cm, P = 0.006). No significant effect of GCE supplementation on body fat percentage and WHR was seen. In the dose-response analyses, there was no significant association between chlorogenic acid (CGA) dosage, as the main polyphenol in green coffee, and changes in anthropometric measures.

CONCLUSION

We found that GCE supplementation had a beneficial effect on body weight, BMI and WC. It provides a cost-effective and safe alternative for the treatment of obesity. Additional well-designed studies are required to further confirm our findings.

Skipping breakfast is associated with overweight and obesity: A systematic review and meta-analysis

OBJECTIVE

In recent years, many original studies have shown that skipping breakfast has been associated with overweight and obesity; however, the results of different studies are inconsistent. Therefore, we conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies to synthesize the associations between skipping breakfast and the risk of overweight/ obesity.

METHODS

We did a systematic search using Pubmed, and Ovid searched up to August 2019. Observational studies (cohort studies and cross-sectional studies) reporting adjusted Odds Ratio or Risk Ratio estimates for the association between breakfast skipping and overweight/obesity (including abdominal obesity). Summary odds ratio (or Risk Ratio) and 95% confidence intervals calculated with a random-effects model.

RESULTS

45 observational studies (36 cross-sectional studies and 9 cohort studies) were included in this meta-analysis. In cross-sectional studies, The ORs of low frequency breakfast intake per week versus high frequency were 1.48 (95% CI 1.40-1.57; I²=54.0%; P=0.002) for overweight/obesity, 1.31 (95% CI 1.17-1.47; I²=43.0%; P=0.15) for abdominal obesity. In cohort studies, The RR of low-frequency breakfast intake per week versus high frequency was 1.44 (95% CI 1.25-1.66; I²=61%; P=0.009) for overweight/obesity.

CONCLUSIONS

This meta-analysis confirmed that skipping breakfast is associated with overweight/obesity, and skipping breakfast increases the risk of overweight/obesity. The results of cohort studies and cross-sectional studies are consistent. There is no significant difference in these results among different ages, gender, regions, and economic conditions.

Dairy Consumption in Relation to Hypertension Among a Large Population of University Students: The MEPHASOUS Study

BACKGROUND

Hypertension is a chronic condition that its prevalence is increasing at an alarming rate. Findings on the association between dairy consumption and hypertension are conflicting and few data are available in the Middle East.

AIM

To assess the association between dairy consumption and hypertension among a large population of university students.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The current study was performed in the framework of the Mental and Physical Health Assessment of University Student (MEPHASOUS) project. Overall, 67,011 university students with complete information were included in the statistical analysis. To assess dairy consumption, a self-administered dietary habits questionnaire was employed. Blood pressure was measured using a standard protocol. The systolic/diastolic blood pressure of ≥140/90 mmHg was considered hypertension.

RESULTS

Hypertension was prevalent among 6.9% of students. A significant inverse association was found between dairy consumption and the odds of hypertension; such that after taking potential confounders into account, individuals in the highest levels of dairy consumption had 85% lower odds for having hypertension compared with those in the lowest levels (odds ratio (OR): 0.15, 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.13-0.18). Such an inverse association was also seen among males (OR: 0.14, 95% CI: 0.11-0.18) and females (OR: 0.16, 95% CI: 0.12-0.21), normal-weight students (OR: 0.15, 95% CI: 0.12-0.18) and those with overweight or obesity (OR: 0.15, 95% CI: 0.11-0.21), and individuals with (OR: 0.13, 95% CI: 0.11-0.16) and without (OR: 0.24, 95% CI: 0.17-0.35) family history of hypertension.

CONCLUSION

Our results support the previous findings on the inverse association between dairy consumption and hypertension among university students.