Organoids: a novel modality in disease modeling

Alteration in DNA methylation patterns: Epigenetic signatures in gastrointestinal cancers

Abnormalities in epigenetic modifications can cause malignant transformations in cells, leading to cancers of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, which accounts for 20% of all cancers worldwide. Among the epigenetic alterations, DNA hypomethylation is associated with genomic instability. In addition, CpG methylation and promoter hypermethylation have been recognized as biomarkers for different malignancies. In GI cancers, epigenetic alterations affect genes responsible for cell cycle control, DNA repair, apoptosis, and tumorigenic-specific signaling pathways. Understanding the pattern of alterations in DNA methylation in GI cancers could help scientists discover new molecular-based pharmaceutical treatments. This study highlights alterations in DNA methylation in GI cancers. Understanding epigenetic differences among GI cancers may improve targeted therapies and lead to the discovery of new diagnostic biomarkers.

Simple modeling of familial Alzheimer's disease using human pluripotent stem cell-derived cerebral organoid technology

BACKGROUND

Cerebral organoids (COs) are the most advanced in vitro models that resemble the human brain. The use of COs as a model for Alzheimer's disease (AD), as well as other brain diseases, has recently gained attention. This study aimed to develop a human AD CO model using normal human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) that recapitulates the pathological phenotypes of AD and to determine the usefulness of this model for drug screening.

METHODS

We established AD hPSC lines from normal hPSCs by introducing genes that harbor familial AD mutations, and the COs were generated using these hPSC lines. The pathological features of AD, including extensive amyloid-β (Aβ) accumulation, tauopathy, and neurodegeneration, were analyzed using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, Amylo-Glo staining, thioflavin-S staining, immunohistochemistry, Bielschowsky's staining, and western blot analysis.

RESULTS

The AD COs exhibited extensive Aβ accumulation. The levels of paired helical filament tau and neurofibrillary tangle-like silver deposits were highly increased in the AD COs. The number of cells immunoreactive for cleaved caspase-3 was significantly increased in the AD COs. In addition, treatment of AD COs with BACE1 inhibitor IV, a β-secretase inhibitor, and compound E, a γ-secretase inhibitor, significantly attenuated the AD pathological features.

CONCLUSION

Our model effectively recapitulates AD pathology. Hence, it is a valuable platform for understanding the mechanisms underlying AD pathogenesis and can be used to test the efficacy of anti-AD drugs.

Organoids Modeling Stroke in a Petri Dish

Stroke is a common neurological disorder, the second leading cause of death, and the third leading cause of disability. Unfortunately, the only approved drug for it is tissue plasminogen, but the therapeutic window is limited. In this context, preclinical studies are relevant to better dissect the underlying mechanisms of stroke and for the drug screening of potential therapies. Brain organoids could be relevant in this setting. They are derived from pluripotent stem cells or isolated organ progenitors that differentiate to form an organ-like tissue, exhibiting multiple cell types that self-organize to form a structure not unlike the organ in vivo. Brain organoids mimic many key features of early human brain development at molecular, cellular, structural, and functional levels and have emerged as novel model systems that can be used to investigate human brain diseases including stroke. Brain organoids are a promising and powerful tool for ischemic stroke studies; however, there are a few concerns that need to be addressed, including the lack of vascularization and the many cell types that are typically present in the human brain. The aim of this review is to discuss the potential of brain organoids as a novel model system for studying ischemic stroke, highlighting both the advantages and disadvantages in the use of this technology.

A new era in the science and care of kidney diseases

Notable progress in basic, translational and clinical nephrology research has been made over the past five decades. Nonetheless, many challenges remain, including obstacles to the early detection of kidney disease, disparities in access to care and variability in responses to existing and emerging therapies. Innovations in drug development, research technologies, tissue engineering and regenerative medicine have the potential to improve patient outcomes. Exciting prospects include the availability of new drugs to slow or halt the progression of chronic kidney disease, the development of bioartificial kidneys that mimic healthy kidney functions, and tissue engineering techniques that could enable transplantable kidneys to be created from the cells of the recipient, removing the risk of rejection. Cell and gene therapies have the potential to be applied for kidney tissue regeneration and repair. In addition, about 30% of kidney disease cases are monogenic and could potentially be treated using these genetic medicine approaches. Systemic diseases that involve the kidney, such as diabetes mellitus and hypertension, might also be amenable to these treatments. Continued investment, communication, collaboration and translation of innovations are crucial to realize their full potential. In addition, increasing sophistication in exploring large datasets, implementation science, and qualitative methodologies will improve the ability to deliver transformational kidney health strategies.

Brain Organoids: A Game-Changer for Drug Testing

Neurological disorders are the second cause of death and the leading cause of disability worldwide. Unfortunately, no cure exists for these disorders, but the actual therapies are only able to ameliorate people's quality of life. Thus, there is an urgent need to test potential therapeutic approaches. Brain organoids are a possible valuable tool in the study of the brain, due to their ability to reproduce different brain regions and maturation stages; they can be used also as a tool for disease modelling and target identification of neurological disorders. Recently, brain organoids have been used in drug-screening processes, even if there are several limitations to overcome. This review focuses on the description of brain organoid development and drug-screening processes, discussing the advantages, challenges, and limitations of the use of organoids in modeling neurological diseases. We also highlighted the potential of testing novel therapeutic approaches. Finally, we examine the challenges and future directions to improve the drug-screening process.

Blood-Labyrinth Barrier in Health and Diseases: Effect of Hormetic Nutrients

Significance: The stria vascularis, located in the inner ear, consists of three layers, one of which is the blood-labyrinth barrier (BLB). It is formed by endothelial cells, sealed together to prevent the passage of toxic substances from the blood to the inner ear, by pericytes and perivascular-resident macrophage-like melanocyte. Recent Advances: There are various causes that lead to hearing loss, and among these are noise-induced and autoimmune hearing loss, ear disorders related to ototoxic medication, Ménière's disease, and age-related hearing loss. For all of these, major therapeutic interventions include drug-loaded nanoparticles, via intratympanic or intracochlear delivery. Critical Issues: Since many pathologies associated with hearing loss are characterized by a weakening of the BLB, in this review, the molecular mechanisms underlying the response to damage of BLB cellular components have been discussed. In addition, insight into the role of hormetic nutrients against hearing loss pathology is proposed. Future Directions: BLB cellular components of neurovascular cochlear unit play important physiological roles, owing to their impermeable function against all ototoxic substances that can induce damage. Studies are needed to investigate the cross talk occurring between these cellular components to exploit their possible role as novel targets for therapeutic interventions that may unravel future path based on the use of hormetic nutrients. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 40, 542-563.

AI-enabled organoids: Construction, analysis, and application

Organoids, miniature and simplified in vitro model systems that mimic the structure and function of organs, have attracted considerable interest due to their promising applications in disease modeling, drug screening, personalized medicine, and tissue engineering. Despite the substantial success in cultivating physiologically relevant organoids, challenges remain concerning the complexities of their assembly and the difficulties associated with data analysis. The advent of AI-Enabled Organoids, which interfaces with artificial intelligence (AI), holds the potential to revolutionize the field by offering novel insights and methodologies that can expedite the development and clinical application of organoids. This review succinctly delineates the fundamental concepts and mechanisms underlying AI-Enabled Organoids, summarizing the prospective applications on rapid screening of construction strategies, cost-effective extraction of multiscale image features, streamlined analysis of multi-omics data, and precise preclinical evaluation and application. We also explore the challenges and limitations of interfacing organoids with AI, and discuss the future direction of the field. Taken together, the AI-Enabled Organoids hold significant promise for advancing our understanding of organ development and disease progression, ultimately laying the groundwork for clinical application.

Organ bioprinting: progress, challenges and outlook

Bioprinting, as a groundbreaking technology, enables the fabrication of biomimetic tissues and organs with highly complex structures, multiple cell types, mechanical heterogeneity, and diverse functional gradients. With the growing demand for organ transplantation and the limited number of organ donors, bioprinting holds great promise for addressing the organ shortage by manufacturing completely functional organs. While the bioprinting of complete organs remains a distant goal, there has been considerable progress in the development of bioprinted transplantable tissues and organs for regenerative medicine. This review article recapitulates the current achievements of organ 3D bioprinting, primarily encompassing five important organs in the human body (i.e., the heart, kidneys, liver, pancreas, and lungs). Challenges from cellular techniques, biomanufacturing technologies, and organ maturation techniques are also deliberated for the broad application of organ bioprinting. In addition, the integration of bioprinting with other cutting-edge technologies including machine learning, organoids, and microfluidics is envisioned, which strives to offer the reader the prospect of bioprinting in constructing functional organs.

Addressing Key Questions in Organoid Models: Who, Where, How, and Why?

Organoids are three-dimensional cellular structures designed to recreate the biological characteristics of the body's native tissues and organs in vitro. There has been a recent surge in studies utilizing organoids due to their distinct advantages over traditional two-dimensional in vitro approaches. However, there is no consensus on how to define organoids. This literature review aims to clarify the concept of organoids and address the four fundamental questions pertaining to organoid models: (i) What constitutes organoids?-The cellular material. (ii) Where do organoids grow?-The extracellular scaffold. (iii) How are organoids maintained in vitro?-Via the culture media. (iv) Why are organoids suitable in vitro models?-They represent reproducible, stable, and scalable models for biological applications. Finally, this review provides an update on the organoid models employed within the female reproductive tract, underscoring their relevance in both basic biology and clinical applications.

A Shadow of Knowledge in Stem Cell Science

"Theory of Forms" implies that a genuine version of creatures exists beyond the shapes in this world. Stem cell
technology has adopted developmental cues to mimic real life. However, the functionality of the lab-made cells is far
from primary ones. Perhaps it is time to switch from analytical to systematic perspective in stem cell science. This
may be the way to define new horizons based on the systematic perspective and convergence of science in stem cell
biology, bridging the current gap between the shadows of real knowledge in current research and reality in future.

Biotechnological advances and applications of human pluripotent stem cell-derived heart models

In recent years, significant biotechnological advancements have been made in engineering human cardiac tissues and organ-like models. This field of research is crucial for both basic and translational research due to cardiovascular disease being the leading cause of death in the developed world. Additionally, drug-associated cardiotoxicity poses a major challenge for drug development in the pharmaceutical and biotechnological industries. Progress in three-dimensional cell culture and microfluidic devices has enabled the generation of human cardiac models that faithfully recapitulate key aspects of human physiology. In this review, we will discuss 3D pluripotent stem cell (PSC)-models of the human heart, such as engineered heart tissues and organoids, and their applications in disease modeling and drug screening.

Advanced In Vitro Three-Dimensional Skin Models of Atopic Dermatitis

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is one of the most prevalent inflammatory skin diseases that is characterized by eczematous rashes, intense itching, dry skin, and sensitive skin. Although AD significantly impacts the quality of life and the number of patients keeps increasing, its pathological mechanism is still unknown because of its complexity. The importance of developing new in vitro three-dimensional (3D) models has been underlined in order to understand the mechanisms for the development of therapeutics since the limitations of 2D models or animal models have been repeatedly reported. Thus, the new in vitro AD models should not only be created in 3D structure, but also reflect the pathological characteristics of AD, which are known to be associated with Th2-mediated inflammatory responses, epidermal barrier disruption, increased dermal T-cell infiltration, filaggrin down-regulation, or microbial imbalance. In this review, we introduce various types of in vitro skin models including 3D culture methods, skin-on-a-chips, and skin organoids, as well as their applications to AD modeling for drug screening and mechanistic studies.

Modeling Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy Cardiomyopathy with Patients' Induced Pluripotent Stem-Cell-Derived Cardiomyocytes

Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is an X-linked progressive muscle degenerative disease caused by mutations in the dystrophin gene, resulting in death by the end of the third decade of life at the latest. A key aspect of the DMD clinical phenotype is dilated cardiomyopathy, affecting virtually all patients by the end of the second decade of life. Furthermore, despite respiratory complications still being the leading cause of death, with advancements in medical care in recent years, cardiac involvement has become an increasing cause of mortality. Over the years, extensive research has been conducted using different DMD animal models, including the mdx mouse. While these models present certain important similarities to human DMD patients, they also have some differences which pose a challenge to researchers. The development of somatic cell reprograming technology has enabled generation of human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) which can be differentiated into different cell types. This technology provides a potentially endless pool of human cells for research. Furthermore, hiPSCs can be generated from patients, thus providing patient-specific cells and enabling research tailored to different mutations. DMD cardiac involvement has been shown in animal models to include changes in gene expression of different proteins, abnormal cellular Ca²⁺ handling, and other aberrations. To gain a better understanding of the disease mechanisms, it is imperative to validate these findings in human cells. Furthermore, with the recent advancements in gene-editing technology, hiPSCs provide a valuable platform for research and development of new therapies including the possibility of regenerative medicine. In this article, we review the DMD cardiac-related research performed so far using human hiPSCs-derived cardiomyocytes (hiPSC-CMs) carrying DMD mutations.

Animal Disease Models and Patient-iPS-Cell-Derived In Vitro Disease Models for Cardiovascular Biology-How Close to Disease?

Currently, zebrafish, rodents, canines, and pigs are the primary disease models used in cardiovascular research. In general, larger animals have more physiological similarities to humans, making better disease models. However, they can have restricted or limited use because they are difficult to handle and maintain. Moreover, animal welfare laws regulate the use of experimental animals. Different species have different mechanisms of disease onset. Organs in each animal species have different characteristics depending on their evolutionary history and living environment. For example, mice have higher heart rates than humans. Nonetheless, preclinical studies have used animals to evaluate the safety and efficacy of human drugs because no other complementary method exists. Hence, we need to evaluate the similarities and differences in disease mechanisms between humans and experimental animals. The translation of animal data to humans contributes to eliminating the gap between these two. In vitro disease models have been used as another alternative for human disease models since the discovery of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs). Human cardiomyocytes have been generated from patient-derived iPSCs, which are genetically identical to the derived patients. Researchers have attempted to develop in vivo mimicking 3D culture systems. In this review, we explore the possible uses of animal disease models, iPSC-derived in vitro disease models, humanized animals, and the recent challenges of machine learning. The combination of these methods will make disease models more similar to human disease.

Exosomes for angiogenesis induction in ischemic disorders

Ischaemic disorders are leading causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide. While the current therapeutic approaches have improved life expectancy and quality of life, they are unable to "cure" ischemic diseases and instate regeneration of damaged tissues. Exosomes are a class of extracellular vesicles with an average size of 100-150 nm, secreted by many cell types and considered a potent factor of cells for paracrine effects. Since exosomes contain multiple bioactive components such as growth factors, molecular intermediates of different intracellular pathways, microRNAs and nucleic acids, they are considered as cell-free therapeutics. Besides, exosomes do not rise cell therapy concerns such as teratoma formation, alloreactivity and thrombotic events. In addition, exosomes are stored and utilized more convenient. Interestingly, exosomes could be an ideal complementary therapeutic tool for ischemic disorders. In this review, we discussed therapeutic functions of exosomes in ischemic disorders including angiogenesis induction through various mechanisms with specific attention to vascular endothelial growth factor pathway. Furthermore, different delivery routes of exosomes and different modification strategies including cell preconditioning, gene modification and bioconjugation, were highlighted. Finally, pre-clinical and clinical investigations in which exosomes were used were discussed.

Human Brain Organoids in Migraine Research: Pathogenesis and Drug Development

Human organoids are small, self-organized, three-dimensional (3D) tissue cultures that have started to revolutionize medical science in terms of understanding disease, testing pharmacologically active compounds, and offering novel ways to treat disease. Organoids of the liver, kidney, intestine, lung, and brain have been developed in recent years. Human brain organoids are used for understanding pathogenesis and investigating therapeutic options for neurodevelopmental, neuropsychiatric, neurodegenerative, and neurological disorders. Theoretically, several brain disorders can be modeled with the aid of human brain organoids, and hence the potential exists for understanding migraine pathogenesis and its treatment with the aid of brain organoids. Migraine is considered a brain disorder with neurological and non-neurological abnormalities and symptoms. Both genetic and environmental factors play essential roles in migraine pathogenesis and its clinical manifestations. Several types of migraines are classified, for example, migraines with and without aura, and human brain organoids can be developed from patients with these types of migraines to study genetic factors (e.g., channelopathy in calcium channels) and environmental stressors (e.g., chemical and mechanical). In these models, drug candidates for therapeutic purposes can also be tested. Here, the potential and limitations of human brain organoids for studying migraine pathogenesis and its treatment are communicated to generate motivation and stimulate curiosity for further research. This must, however, be considered alongside the complexity of the concept of brain organoids and the neuroethical aspects of the topic. Interested researchers are invited to join the network for protocol development and testing the hypothesis presented here.

Advances in 3D culture systems for therapeutic discovery and development in brain cancer

This review focuses on recent advances in 3D culture systems that promise more accurate therapeutic models of the glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) tumor microenvironment (TME), such as the unique anatomical, cellular, and molecular features evident in human GBM. The key components of a GBM TME are outlined, including microbiomes, vasculature, extracellular matrix (ECM), infiltrating parenchymal and peripheral immune cells and molecules, and chemical gradients. 3D culture systems are evaluated against 2D culture systems and in vivo animal models. The main 3D culture techniques available are compared, with an emphasis on identifying key gaps in knowledge for the development of suitable platforms to accurately model the intricate components of the GBM TME.

PSC-derived intestinal organoids with apical-out orientation as a tool to study nutrient uptake, drug absorption and metabolism

Intestinal organoids recapitulate many features of the in vivo gastrointestinal tract and have revolutionized in vitro studies of intestinal function and disease. However, the restricted accessibility of the apical surface of the organoids facing the central lumen (apical-in) limits studies related to nutrient uptake and drug absorption and metabolism. Here, we demonstrate that pluripotent stem cell (PSC)-derived intestinal organoids with reversed epithelial polarity (apical-out) can successfully recapitulate tissue-specific functions. In particular, these apical-out organoids show strong epithelial barrier formation with all the major junctional complexes, nutrient transport and active lipid metabolism. Furthermore, the organoids express drug-metabolizing enzymes and relevant apical and basolateral transporters. The scalable and robust generation of functional, apical-out intestinal organoids lays the foundation for a completely new range of organoid-based high-throughput/high-content in vitro applications in the fields of nutrition, metabolism and drug discovery.

Insights from multi-omics integration in complex disease primary tissues

Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have provided insights into the genetic basis of complex diseases. In the next step, integrative multi-omics approaches can characterize molecular profiles in relevant primary tissues to reveal the mechanisms that underlie disease development. Here, we highlight recent progress in four examples of complex diseases generated by integrative studies: type 2 diabetes (T2D), osteoarthritis, Alzheimer's disease (AD), and systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). High-resolution methodologies such as single-cell and spatial omics techniques will become even more important in the future. Furthermore, we emphasize the urgent need to include as yet understudied cell types and increase the diversity of studied populations.

Organoid Cultures In Silico: Tools or Toys?

The implementation of stem-cell-based organoid culture more than ten years ago started a development that created new avenues for diagnostic analyses and regenerative medicine. In parallel, computational modelling groups realized the potential of this culture system to support their theoretical approaches to study tissues in silico. These groups developed computational organoid models (COMs) that enabled testing consistency between cell biological data and developing theories of tissue self-organization. The models supported a mechanistic understanding of organoid growth and maturation and helped linking cell mechanics and tissue shape in general. What comes next? Can we use COMs as tools to complement the equipment of our biological and medical research? While these models already support experimental design, can they also quantitatively predict tissue behavior? Here, we review the current state of the art of COMs and discuss perspectives for their application.

Constructing biomimetic liver models through biomaterials and vasculature engineering

The occurrence of various liver diseases can lead to organ failure of the liver, which is one of the leading causes of mortality worldwide. Liver tissue engineering see the potential for replacing liver transplantation and drug toxicity studies facing donor shortages. The basic elements in liver tissue engineering are cells and biomaterials. Both mature hepatocytes and differentiated stem cells can be used as the main source of cells to construct spheroids and organoids, achieving improved cell function. To mimic the extracellular matrix (ECM) environment, biomaterials need to be biocompatible and bioactive, which also help support cell proliferation and differentiation and allow ECM deposition and vascularized structures formation. In addition, advanced manufacturing approaches are required to construct the extracellular microenvironment, and it has been proved that the structured three-dimensional culture system can help to improve the activity of hepatocytes and the characterization of specific proteins. In summary, we review biomaterials for liver tissue engineering, including natural hydrogels and synthetic polymers, and advanced processing techniques for building vascularized microenvironments, including bioassembly, bioprinting and microfluidic methods. We then summarize the application fields including transplant and regeneration, disease models and drug cytotoxicity analysis. In the end, we put the challenges and prospects of vascularized liver tissue engineering.

Long-term culture of patient-derived cardiac organoids recapitulated Duchenne muscular dystrophy cardiomyopathy and disease progression

Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy (DMD) is an X-linked neuromuscular disease which to date is incurable. The major cause of death is dilated cardiomyopathy however, its pathogenesis is unclear as existing cellular and animal models do not fully recapitulate the human disease phenotypes. In this study, we generated cardiac organoids from patient-derived induced pluripotent stem cells (DMD-COs) and isogenic-corrected controls (DMD-Iso-COs) and studied if DMD-related cardiomyopathy and disease progression occur in the organoids upon long-term culture (up to 93 days). Histological analysis showed that DMD-COs lack initial proliferative capacity, displayed a progressive loss of sarcoglycan localization and high stress in endoplasmic reticulum. Additionally, cardiomyocyte deterioration, fibrosis and aberrant adipogenesis were observed in DMD-COs over time. RNA sequencing analysis confirmed a distinct transcriptomic profile in DMD-COs which was associated with functional enrichment in hypertrophy/dilated cardiomyopathy, arrhythmia, adipogenesis and fibrosis pathways. Moreover, five miRNAs were identified to be crucial in this dysregulated gene network. In conclusion, we generated patient-derived cardiac organoid model that displayed DMD-related cardiomyopathy and disease progression phenotypes in long-term culture. We envision the feasibility to develop a more complex, realistic and reliable in vitro 3D human cardiac-mimics to study DMD-related cardiomyopathies.

A drug-responsive multicellular human spheroid model to recapitulate drug-induced pulmonary fibrosis

Associated with a high mortality rate, pulmonary fibrosis (PF) is the end stage of several interstitial lung diseases. Although many factors are linked to PF progression, initiation of the fibrotic process remains to be studied. Current research focused on generating new strategies to gain a better understanding of the underlying disease mechanism as the animal models remain insufficient to reflect human physiology. Herein, to account complex cellular interactions within the fibrotic tissue, a multicellular spheroid (MCS) model where human bronchial epithelial cells incorporated with human lung fibroblasts was generated and treated with bleomycin (BLM) to emulate drug-induced PF. Recapitulating the epithelial-interstitial microenvironment, the findings successfully reflected the PF disease, where excessive alpha smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) and collagen type I secretion were noted along with the morphological changes in response to BLM. Moreover, increased levels of fibrotic linked COL13A1, MMP2, WNT3 and decreased expression level of CDH1 provide evidence for the model reliability on fibrosis modelling. Subsequent administration of the FDA approved nintedanib and pirfenidone anti-fibrotic drugs proved the drug-responsiveness of the model.

Vascularizing the brain in vitro

The brain is arguably the most fascinating and complex organ in the human body. Recreating the brain in vitro is an ambition restricted by our limited understanding of its structure and interacting elements. One of these interacting parts, the brain microvasculature, is distinguished by a highly selective barrier known as the blood-brain barrier (BBB), limiting the transport of substances between the blood and the nervous system. Numerous in vitro models have been used to mimic the BBB and constructed by implementing a variety of microfabrication and microfluidic techniques. However, currently available models still cannot accurately imitate the in vivo characteristics of BBB. In this article, we review recent BBB models by analyzing each parameter affecting the accuracy of these models. Furthermore, we propose an investigation of the synergy between BBB models and neuronal tissue biofabrication, which results in more advanced models, including neurovascular unit microfluidic models and vascularized brain organoid-based models.

Transcriptional and Epigenetic Regulation of Monocyte and Macrophage Dysfunction by Chronic Alcohol Consumption

Drinking alcohol, even in moderation, can affect the immune system. Studies have shown disproportionate effects of alcohol on circulating and tissue-resident myeloid cells (granulocytes, monocytes, macrophages, dendritic cells). These cells orchestrate the body's first line of defense against microbial challenges as well as maintain tissue homeostasis and repair. Alcohol's effects on these cells are dependent on exposure pattern, with acute drinking dampening but chronic drinking enhancing production of inflammatory mediators. Although chronic drinking is associated with heightened systemic inflammation, studies on tissue resident macrophage populations in several organs including the spleen, liver, brain, and lung have also shown compromised functional and metabolic capacities of these cells. Many of these effects are thought to be mediated by oxidative stress caused by alcohol and its metabolites which can directly impact the cellular epigenetic landscapes. In addition, since myeloid cells are relatively short-lived in circulation and are under constant repopulation from the bone marrow compartment, alcohol's effects on bone marrow progenitors and hematopoiesis are important for understanding the impact of alcohol systemically on these myeloid populations. Alcohol-induced disruption of progenitor, circulating, and tissue resident myeloid populations contribute to the increased susceptibility of patients with alcohol use disorders to viral and bacterial infections. In this review, we provide an overview of the impact of chronic alcohol consumption on the function of monocytes and macrophages in host defense, tissue repair and inflammation. We then summarize our current understanding of the mechanisms underlying alcohol-induced disruption and examine changes in transcriptome and epigenome of monocytes and mcrophages. Overall, chronic alcohol consumption leads to hyper-inflammation concomitant with decreased microbial and wound healing responses by monocytes/macrophages due to a rewiring of the epigentic and transcriptional landscape. However, in advanced alcoholic liver disease, myeloid cells become immunosuppressed as a response to the surrounding hyper-inflammatory milieu. Therefore, the effect of chronic alcohol on the inflammatory response depends on disease state and the immune cell population.

3D modeling in cancer studies

The tumor microenvironment contributes significantly to tumor initiation, progression, and resistance to chemotherapy. Much of our understanding of the tumor and its microenvironment is developed using various methods of cell culture. Throughout the last two decades, research has increasingly shown that 3D cell culture systems can remarkably recapitulate the complexity of tumor architecture and physiology compared to traditional 2D models. Unlike the flat culture system, these novel models enabled more cell-cell and cell-extracellular matrix interactions. By mimicking in vivo microenvironment, 3D culture systems promise to become accurate tools ready to be used in diagnosis, drug screening, and personalized medicine. In this review, we discussed the importance of 3D culture in simulating the tumor microenvironment and focused on the effects of cancer cell-microenvironment interactions on cancer behavior, resistance, proliferation, and metastasis. Finally, we assessed the role of 3D cell culture systems in the contexts of drug screening. 2D culture system is used to study cancer cell growth, progression, behavior, and drug response. It provides contact between cells and supports paracrine crosstalk between host cells and cancer cells. However, this system fails to simulate the architecture and the physiological aspects of in vivo tumor microenvironment due to the absence of cell-cell/ cell-ECM interactions as well as unlimited access to O₂ and nutrients, and the absence of tumor heterogeneity. Recently advanced research has led researchers to generate 3D culture system that can better recapitulate the in vivo environment by providing hypoxic medium, facilitating cell-cell and cell-ECM, interactions, and recapitulating heterogeneity of the tumor. Several approaches are used to maintain and expand cancer cells in 3D culture systems such as tumor spheroids (cell aggregate that mimics the in vivo growth of tumor cells), scaffold-based approaches, bioreactors, microfluidic derives, and organoids. 3D systems are currently used for disease modeling and pre-clinical drug testing.