The binding of folyl polyglutamates by hemoglobin

Characterization and Interrelations of One-Carbon Metabolites in Tissues, Erythrocytes, and Plasma in Mice with Dietary Induced Folate Deficiency

Studies on one-carbon metabolism for the assessment of folate deficiency have focused on either metabolites of folate metabolism or methionine cycle. To bridge the gap between deficiency markers in these pathways we designed a dietary induced folate deficiency study using male C57BL/6N mice. After weaning (3 weeks) mice were fed a defined control diet (1 week) before being fed a folate deficient diet (n = 6 mice) and the control diet (n = 6 mice) for 12 additional weeks. Thereafter, we determined total homocysteine in plasma and folate in erythrocytes as well as S-adenosylmethionine, S-adenosylhomocysteine, and six folate vitamers in tissues including 5-methyltetrahydrofolate, 5-formyltetrahydrofolate, 5,10-methenyltetrahydrofolate, tetrahydrofolate, 10-formylfolic acid, and folic acid by means of stable isotope dilution assays coupled with liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. In all organs, except heart (mainly 5-mehtyltetrahydrofolate), tetrahydrofolate constitutes the main vitamer. Moreover, in liver tetrahydrofolate was most abundant followed by 5-methyltetrahydrofolate (heart: tetrahydrofolate), 5-formyltetrahydrofolate, and 5,10-methenyltetrahydrofolate. Because of the significant decrease (p < 0.05) of folate status and S-adenosylmethionine/S-adenosylhomocysteine ratio accompanied with increasing S-adenosylhomocysteine (p < 0.05), hepatocytes are most susceptible to folate deficiency. To the best of our knowledge, we herein present the first method for simultaneous quantitation of eight metabolites for both folate and methionine cycle in one tissue sample, tHcy in plasma, and erythrocyte folate to shed light on physiological interrelations of one-carbon metabolism.

Stable Isotope Dilution Assays for Clinical Analyses of Folates and Other One-Carbon Metabolites: Application to Folate-Deficiency Studies

Folate deficiency is generally accepted as a potential direct or indirect risk factor for diseases including spina bifida, coronary heart diseases, malfunctions of the central nervous system, and cancer. The direct inclusion of folates in the methylation cycle, including the remethylation of homocysteine and regeneration of S-adenosylmethionine, underlines the importance of these vitamins and other components of one-carbon metabolism. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to develop a multiple stable isotope dilution assay (SIDA) for the respective analytes in plasma and tissue samples to allow for a closer look at the interaction between a severe folate deficiency and local folate status, as well as further interactions with circulating S-adenosylmethionine, S-adenosylhomocysteine, and homocysteine. The analytical methods were based on SIDAs coupled with liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) analysis using the deuterated folates [2H4]-5-methyltetrahydrofolic acid, [2H4]-5-formyltetrahydrofolic acid, [2H4]-tetrahydrofolic acid, [2H4]-10-formylfolic acid, and [2H4]-folic acid and the deuterated one-carbon metabolites [2H4]-homocysteine, [2H4]-S-adenosylhomocysteine, and [2H3]-S-adenosylmethionine as internal standards. Three analytical methods have been developed for the analysis of homocysteine, S-adenosylmethionine, S-adenosylhomocysteine, and six folate vitamers. Validation data for the analysis of C1-metabolites in plasma and tissue samples or folate analysis in tissue samples revealed excellent sensitivity, precision, and recovery for all analytes studied. The miniaturized methods using sample volumes as low as 50 μL and weighed portions of 5-25 mg will allow the assessment of the status of folates and additional biomarkers of impaired one-carbon metabolism during folate deficiency.

The folate metabolic network of Falciparum malaria

The targeting of key enzymes in the folate pathway continues to be an effective chemotherapeutic approach that has earned antifolate drugs a valuable position in the medical pharmacopoeia. The successful therapeutic use of antifolates as antimalarials has been a catalyst for ongoing research into the biochemistry of folate and pterin biosynthesis in malaria parasites. However, our understanding of the parasites folate metabolism remains partial and patchy, especially in relation to the shikimate pathway, the folate cycle, and folate salvage. A sizeable number of potential folate targets remain to be characterised. Recent reports on the parasite specific transport of folate precursors that would normally be present in the human host awaken previous hypotheses on the salvage of folate precursors or by-products. As the parasite progresses through its life-cycle it encounters very contrasting host cell environments that present radically different metabolic milieus and biochemical challenges. It would seem probable that as the parasite encounters differing environments it would need to modify its biochemistry. This would be reflected in the folate homeostasis in Plasmodium. Recent drug screening efforts and insights into folate membrane transport substantiate the argument that folate metabolism may still offer unexplored opportunities for therapeutic attack.

Influence of Human Serum Albumin on Photodegradation of Folic Acid in Solution

It has been proposed that photodegradation of folates may be the reason for the pigmentation of races living under high fluence rates of ultraviolet radiation. The photodegradation of folic acid (FA) induced by ultraviolet-A (UV-A) radiation, in solution and in the presence of human serum albumin (HSA), was studied with absorption and fluorescence spectroscopy. FA photodegradation, with formation of p-aminobenzoyl-l-glutamic acid, 6-formylpterin and pterin-6-carboxylic acid, was found to follow an exponential trend. A scheme of FA photodegradation, which involves photosensitization of FA degradation by its photoproducts, was proposed. The rate of FA photodegradation decreased drastically in the presence of HSA, whereas the spectral characteristics of the photoproducts remained constant. The reduction of the FA photodegradation rate by HSA was accompanied by degradation of tryptophan in HSA. Tryptophan, when added to solutions of FA, had a similar effect as HSA. In solutions of FA and HSA the FA photoproducts cause photodamage mainly to HSA rather than to FA itself. The oxygen dependence of FA photodegradation and the inhibition of this process by sodium azide indicate that singlet oxygen may participate in the photosensitizing activity of FA photoproducts.

Erythrocyte Folate Analysis: Saponin Added During Lysis of Whole Blood Can Increase Apparent Folate Concentrations, Depending on Hemolysate pH

Background: The analysis of red cell folate (RCF) depends on complete hemolysis of erythrocytes, and it is assumed that complete hemolysis is achieved by 10-fold dilution of whole blood with hypotonic solutions of 10 g/L ascorbic acid/ascorbate. This report challenges this assumption.

Methods: The conventional method of erythrocyte lysis was modified to include saponin, a known effective hemolyzing agent. The influence of saponin was determined at various lysate pHs, using the microbiological (Lactobacillus rhamnosus) folate assay. The effect of saponin during lysate preparation was subsequently compared with either the effect of 30 s of sonication or a single 1-h freeze-thaw cycle.

Results: Saponin addition was found to increase assayable RCF up to ninefold, depending on lysate pH. Sonication of lysates had no effect, and freezing-thawing lysates once did not always guarantee complete hemolysis. Lysates created with 10 g/L ascorbic acid (a historically widely used diluent) without pH adjustment produced assayable folate concentrations significantly lower than optimal.

Conclusions: A lysing agent should be incorporated into RCF assays to guarantee complete hemolysis. Ten-fold dilution of blood with 10 g/L ascorbic acid, without pH adjustment, produces lysates with pHs (pH 4.0) below the point (pH 4.7) at which hemoglobin can denature irreversibly. The optimum pH for hemolysates is ∼5.0.

Erythrocyte folate analysis: a cause for concern?

Neural tube defects can be prevented by adequate intake of periconceptional folate, and inverse associations between folate status and cardiovascular disease and various cancers have been noted. Thus, there is renewed interest in the analysis of red cell folate (RCF) as an indicator of folate deficiency risk. Assessment of the assumptions that underpin RCF assays indicates that many are false. Published literature suggests that increased deoxy-hemoglobin (which can bind RCF electrostatically) yields more assayable folate, and increased oxy-hemoglobin (which cannot bind RCF) yields less assayable folate. It is argued that as deoxy-hemoglobin picks up oxygen and switches quaternary structure, any bound folate must, on purely theoretical grounds, become physically “trapped”. Venous blood taken for analysis is 65% to 75% saturated with oxygen, and pro-rata “trapping” will lead to serious underestimation of RCF. Hence, doubt is cast over the validity of all previous RCF values. Some strategies for accurately assessing RCF are suggested.

Levels of folic acid in plasma and in red blood cells of colorectal cancer patients

The levels of folic acid have been determined by radioimmunological method in the plasma and in the red blood cells of normal subjects and colorectal cancer patients. A decrease was evident both in the plasma and erythrocytes of cancer patients. The possible reasons and applications of this observation are discussed.

Folate (pteroylglutamate) uptake in human red blood cells, erythroid precursors and KB cells at high extracellular folate concentrations. Evidence against a role for specific folate-binding and transport proteins

Membrane-associated folate (pteroylglutamate, PteGlu)-binding proteins (FBPs) play an important role as PteGlu-transport proteins in malignant and normal human cells. Since high extracellular folate (PteGlu) concentrations (EFC) profoundly influenced uptake and toxicity of the anti-PteGlu methotrexate in malignant KB cells, we studied human cells to determine additional mechanisms for PteGlu uptake when the EFC was varied. At low EFC (less than 10 nM), the predominant mechanism for folate uptake in mature erythrocytes was through binding to externally oriented FBPs which were quantitatively insignificant (4-6 orders of magnitude lower) and of no apparent physiological relevance when compared with KB cells. However, the predominant mechanism of PteGlu accumulation at high EFC [10-250 nM] in intact erythrocytes and sealed right-side-out (RSO) ghosts was not FBP-mediated and non-specific. This conclusion was based on the findings that radiolabelled PteGlu uptake: (i) continued even in the presence of a 1000-fold excess of unlabelled PteGlu and was linear and not saturable up to 250 nM; (ii) was two-fold higher at pH 4.5 than 7.5; (iii) was less than 2-fold increased at 37 degrees C compared with 4 degrees C; and (iv) was unaffected after trypsin-mediated proteolysis of greater than 75% FBPs. The [3H]PteGlu and 125I-PteGlu (histamine derivative) accumulated intracellularly through the non-specific PteGlu-uptake mechanism was unaltered biochemically and in a soluble compartment. Raising the EFC 500-fold higher than controls during erythropoiesis in vitro resulted in reversal of the expected anti-(placental folate-receptor)-antiserum-induced megaloblastic changes in orthochromatic normoblasts derived from burst-forming unit-erythroid colonies. Furthermore, at EFC greater than 0.1 microM, KB-cell accumulation of [3H]PteGlu was also predominantly through a mechanism that did not involve specific FBPs. Thus, at high EFC, a major component of PteGlu transport in human cells is not mediated through FBPs and is likely to be a passive diffusion process.

Interaction of folylpolyglutamates with enzymes in one-carbon metabolism

Of all the coenzymes, tetrahydrofolate exhibits the most structural diversity. The relationship of these structural forms to physiological function is under intense study by numerous research groups. In textbooks, tetrahydrofolate (tetrahydropteroylmonoglutamate) is shown as the coenzyme of one-carbon metabolism, but it has been known for several decades that the physiologically active forms of the coenzyme contain from 4 to 7 glutamyl residues linked by amide bonds through the gamma-carboxyl group. These glutamyl residues do not serve a direct function in transferring the one-carbon group. The tetrahydrofolylpolyglutamates were originally thought to be simply storage forms of the coenzyme, but studies now show that the polyglutamate chain of the coenzyme affects the transport properties of the coenzyme, alters the kinetic properties of many enzymes in one-carbon metabolism, and results in channeling of the coenzyme between several enzymes. In general, the dissociation constants of this group of enzymes for the tetrahydrofolylpolyglutamates are very low, in the 0.1 to 1 microM range. The concentration of the coenzyme in the cell appears to be similar to the concentration of folate-utilizing enzymes, suggesting that the concentration of unbound coenzyme in the cell may be very low. Several of the enzymes in one-carbon metabolism are either multifunctional proteins or multienzyme complexes. An active area of research is to determine if there is a functional relationship between these multifunctional enzymes and the polyglutamate portion of the coenzyme.

A pteroylpolyglutamate binds to tetramers in deoxyhemoglobin but to dimers in oxyhemoglobin

The binding of a physiological concentration of pteroylhepta(glutamate) to oxy- and deoxyhemoglobin in large excess was measured by ultrafiltration. The variation of free to bound folate with hemoglobin concentration showed that a single molecule of the pteroylpolyglutamate is bound by deoxyhemoglobin tetramers and by alpha beta dimers in oxyhemoglobin. Although the binding sites are different, the affinity constants are the same and very similar to the 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate binding energy. Nevertheless, in view of the small proportion of dimers in oxyhemoglobin much more pteroylhepta(glutamate) is bound by deoxyhemoglobin over a wide range of hemoglobin concentrations. Because even 2% deoxyhemoglobin is enough to bind all of the erythrocyte folate as polyglutamate, the bulk of it will be bound at physiological oxygen pressures. Free folate could only be expected in fully oxygenated erythrocytes. Therefore, the reaction of pteroylpolyglutamates with hemoglobin represents an oxygenation-dependent storage mechanism that can account for the 40-fold excess of the vitamin in the erythrocyte over the amounts in the serum. Because methotrexate is also converted to polyglutamate derivatives in the erythrocyte, this drug is likely to be concentrated and stored there by the same mechanism.

Oxygenation alters red cell folate levels

Folate activity is consistently higher in deoxygenated than oxygenated human blood as measured by both radioassay and Lactobacillus casei growth. Red cell, but not serum, folate levels are rapidly mutable: when fully oxygenated, the mean red cell folate level of 15 samples was 489 ng/ml; after deoxygenation the mean rose to 553 ng/ml; following re-oxygenation the mean returned to 488 ng/ml. Transport of folate across the red cell membrane apparently does not contribute to these changes in folate levels, since agents known to inhibit permeation (N-ethyl-maleimide, p-chlormercuriphenyl sulfonic acid and ethacrynic acid) do not affect the rise with deoxygenation. Moreover, new synthesis of folate compounds seems unlikely, since the changes are observed in energy-depleted cells. Instead, direct binding of folate to haemoglobin is suggested by experiments in which the rise with deoxygenation was not seen in red cells exposed to carbon monoxide or treated with cyanate. Similar changes also occur in vivo: canine red cell, but not serum folate levels are significantly higher (P less than 0.05) in samples collected from five different veins compared with blood from the paired artery (carotid-jugular, renal, mesenteric, splenic, femoral) of four animals. Thus red cell folate levels are predictably influenced by the levels of oxygenation of the erythrocyte both in vitro and in vivo, possibly by reversibly binding to haemoglobin.