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Tahoun M, Gee CT, McCoy VE, Sander PM, Müller CE. Chemistry of porphyrins in fossil plants and animals. RSC Adv 2021; 11:7552-7563. [PMID: 35423242 PMCID: PMC8695116 DOI: 10.1039/d0ra10688g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2020] [Accepted: 02/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Porphyrins are macrocyclic tetrapyrrole derivatives that are widely distributed in nature. They are often complexed with a metal ion located in the center of the ring system and may be modified by various substituents including additional rings, or by ring opening, which leads to a plethora of different functions. Due to their extended conjugated aromatic ring system, porphyrins absorb light in the visible range and therefore show characteristic colors. Well-known natural porphyrins include the red-colored heme present in hemoglobin, which is responsible for blood oxygen transport, and the chlorophylls in some bacteria and in plants which are utilized for photosynthesis. Porphyrins are mostly lipophilic pigments that display relatively high chemical stability. Therefore, they can even survive hundreds of millions of years. The present review article provides an overview of natural porphyrins, their chemical structures, and properties. A special focus is put on porphyrins discovered in the fossil record. Examples will be highlighted, and information on their chemical analysis will be provided. We anticipate that the development of novel analytical methods with increased sensitivity will prompt new discoveries of porphyrins in fossils.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariam Tahoun
- Pharmaceutical Institute, Pharmaceutical & Medicinal Chemistry, University of Bonn An der Immenburg 4 53121 Bonn Germany
| | - Carole T Gee
- Institute of Geosciences, Division of Paleontology, University of Bonn Nussallee 8 53115 Bonn Germany
- Huntington Botanical Gardens 1151 Oxford Road San Marino California 91108 USA
| | - Victoria E McCoy
- Department of Geosciences, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee 3209 N Maryland Ave Milwaukee WI 53211 USA
| | - P Martin Sander
- Institute of Geosciences, Division of Paleontology, University of Bonn Nussallee 8 53115 Bonn Germany
| | - Christa E Müller
- Pharmaceutical Institute, Pharmaceutical & Medicinal Chemistry, University of Bonn An der Immenburg 4 53121 Bonn Germany
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Cleland TP, Thomas CJ, Gundberg CM, Vashishth D. Influence of carboxylation on osteocalcin detection by mass spectrometry. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2016; 30:2109-15. [PMID: 27470908 PMCID: PMC5014568 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.7692] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2015] [Revised: 07/15/2016] [Accepted: 07/15/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE Osteocalcin is a small, abundant bone protein that is difficult to detect using high-throughput tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) proteomic approaches from bone protein extracts, and is predominantly detected by non-MS immunological methods. Here, we analyze bovine osteocalcin and its post-translational modifications to determine why a protein of this size goes undetected. METHODS Osteocalcin was purified from cow bone using well-established methods. Intact osteocalcin or trypsin-digested osteocalcin were separated using an Agilent 1200 series high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) system and analyzed using a ThermoScientific LTQ-Orbitrap XL after fragmentation with higher-energy collision dissociation. Data were analyzed using Mascot or Prosight Lite. RESULTS Our results support previous findings that the cow osteocalcin has up to three carboxylations using both intact osteocalcin and digested forms. Using Mascot, we were able to detect osteocalcin peptides, but no fragments that localized the carboxylations. Full annotation using Prosight Lite of the intact (three carboxylations), N-terminal peptide (one carboxylation), and middle peptide (two carboxylations) showed complete fragmentation was present, but complete neutral loss was observed. CONCLUSIONS Osteocalcin carboxylation, and its associated neutral losses, makes high-throughput detection of this protein challenging; however, alternative fragmentation or limited purification can overcome these challenges. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy P Cleland
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, 12182, USA
| | - Corinne J Thomas
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, 12182, USA
| | - Caren M Gundberg
- Department of Orthopedics and Rehabilitation, Yale University, New Haven, CT, 06520, USA
| | - Deepak Vashishth
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, 12182, USA.
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Cleland TP, Schroeter ER, Schweitzer MH. Biologically and diagenetically derived peptide modifications in moa collagens. Proc Biol Sci 2016; 282:20150015. [PMID: 25972464 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2015.0015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The modifications that occur on proteins in natural environments over time are not well studied, yet characterizing them is vital to correctly interpret sequence data recovered from fossils. The recently extinct moa (Dinornithidae) is an excellent candidate for investigating the preservation of proteins, their post-translational modifications (PTMs) and diagenetic alterations during degradation. Moa protein extracts were analysed using mass spectrometry, and peptides from collagen I, collagen II and collagen V were identified. We also identified biologically derived PTMs (i.e. methylation, di-methylation, alkylation, hydroxylation, fucosylation) on amino acids at locations consistent with extant proteins. In addition to these in vivo modifications, we detected novel modifications that are probably diagenetically derived. These include loss of hydroxylation/glutamic semialdehyde, carboxymethyllysine and peptide backbone cleavage, as well as previously noted deamidation. Moa collagen sequences and modifications provide a baseline by which to evaluate proteomic studies of other fossils, and a framework for defining the molecular relationship of moa to other closely related taxa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy P Cleland
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY 12182, USA
| | - Elena R Schroeter
- Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA
| | - Mary H Schweitzer
- Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences, Raleigh, NC 27601, USA
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Dallongeville S, Garnier N, Rolando C, Tokarski C. Proteins in Art, Archaeology, and Paleontology: From Detection to Identification. Chem Rev 2015; 116:2-79. [PMID: 26709533 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.5b00037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sophie Dallongeville
- Miniaturisation pour la Synthèse, l'Analyse & la Protéomique (MSAP), USR CNRS 3290, Université de Lille 1 Sciences et Technologies , 59655 Villeneuve d'Ascq Cedex, France
| | - Nicolas Garnier
- SARL Laboratoire Nicolas Garnier , 63270 Vic le Comte, France
| | - Christian Rolando
- Miniaturisation pour la Synthèse, l'Analyse & la Protéomique (MSAP), USR CNRS 3290, Université de Lille 1 Sciences et Technologies , 59655 Villeneuve d'Ascq Cedex, France
| | - Caroline Tokarski
- Miniaturisation pour la Synthèse, l'Analyse & la Protéomique (MSAP), USR CNRS 3290, Université de Lille 1 Sciences et Technologies , 59655 Villeneuve d'Ascq Cedex, France
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Portela G, Cerci D, Pedrotti G, Araujo M, Deliberador T, Zielak J, Costa-Casagrande T, Gonzaga C, Giovanini A. L-PRP diminishes bone matrix formation around autogenous bone grafts associated with changes in osteocalcin and PPAR-γ immunoexpression. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg 2014; 43:261-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijom.2013.07.739] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2012] [Revised: 07/04/2013] [Accepted: 07/09/2013] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
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Boskey AL, Gadaleta S, Gundberg C, Doty SB, Ducy P, Karsenty G. Fourier transform infrared microspectroscopic analysis of bones of osteocalcin-deficient mice provides insight into the function of osteocalcin. Bone 1998; 23:187-96. [PMID: 9737340 DOI: 10.1016/s8756-3282(98)00092-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 287] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Osteocalcin, the gamma-carboxyglutamic acid-containing protein, which in most species is the predominant noncollagenous protein of bone and dentin, has been postulated to play roles in bone formation and remodeling. Recently, genetic studies showed that osteocalcin acts as an inhibitor of osteoblast function. Based on von Kossa staining and measurement of mineral apposition rates in tetracycline-labeled bones, osteocalcin knockout animals were reported to have no detectable alterations in bone mineralization. To test the hypothesis that, in addition to regulating osteoblastic activity, osteocalcin is involved in regulating mineral properties, a more sensitive assay of mineralization, Fourier transform infrared microspectroscopy (FT-IRM) was used to study thin sections of femora of 4-week-, 6-month- (intact and ovariectomized), and 9-month-old wild-type and osteocalcin-knockout mice. FT-IRM spectra provided spatially resolved measures of relative mineral and carbonate contents, and parameters indicative of apatite crystal size and perfection. No differences were detected in the mineral properties of the 4-week-old knockout and wild-type mice indicating that the mineralization process was not altered at this time point. Six-month-old wild-type animals had higher mineral contents (mineral:matrix ratios) in cortical as compared with trabecular bones; mineral contents in knockout and wild-type bones were not different. At each age studied, carbonate:phosphate ratios tended to be greater in the wild-type as compared with knockout animals. Detailed analysis of the phosphate nu1,nu3 vibrations in the spectra from 6-month-old wild-type animals indicated that the crystals were larger/more perfect in the cortical as opposed to the trabecular bones. In contrast, in the knockout animals' bones at 6 months, there were no differences between trabecular and cortical bone in terms of carbonate content or crystallite size and perfection. Spectral parameters of the cortical and trabecular bone of the knockout animals resembled those in the wild-type trabecular bone and differed from wild-type cortical bone. In ovariectomized 6-month-old animals, the mineral content (mineral:matrix ratio) in the wild-type cortices increased from periosteum to endosteum, whereas, in the knockout animals' bones, the mineral:matrix ratio was constant. Ovariectomized knockout cortices had lower carbonate:phosphate ratios than wild-type, and crystallite size and perfection resembled that in wild-type trabeculae, and did not increase from periosteum to endosteum. These spatially resolved data provide evidence that osteocalcin is required to stimulate bone mineral maturation.
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Affiliation(s)
- A L Boskey
- Mineralized Tissue Research Section, Hospital for Special Surgery, New York, NY 10021, USA.
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Abstract
The first successful recovery of ancient DNA, from quagga and human mummies inspired significant enough interest to open an entire field of research. Efforts from many research groups, often in a hunt for the oldest sequences, showed that ancient DNA was a poor substrate for the enzymes used in molecular biology; it is present in tiny amounts, hard to purify, and frequently damaged. These obstacles have been partially overcome by the use of drastic laboratory precautions and by the introduction of polymerase chain reaction and phylogenetic studies. Ancient DNA analysis now finds applications in many research domains.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Audic
- E.P.91 Structural and Genetic Information IBSM-CNRS, Marseille, France
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Affiliation(s)
- N Tuross
- Conservation Analytical Laboratory, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 20560
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Abstract
Osteocalcin is a small (Mr 5800), very interesting bone specific protein, synthesized by osteoblasts and measured in plasma as a biochemical indicator of bone formation. Many immunoassays for osteocalcin have been developed, including radio- and enzymoimmunoassays, with the use of monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies. These are used in many different clinical settings, including bone, kidney, and liver diseases. However, there is a wide range of published values for plasma osteocalcin concentrations in control and patient samples and this has hindered a more widespread adoption of osteocalcin measurement by clinicians. This review discusses how various immunoassays for osteocalcin may contribute to the wide variation of published values and suggests approaches for the development of standardized assays. For example, epitope specificity and immunoreactivity with multiple forms of osteocalcin and osteocalcin peptides in plasma are discussed. It also includes a recent update on interesting clinical applications of osteocalcin.
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Affiliation(s)
- M J Power
- Dept. of Biochemistry, University College, Galaway, Ireland
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Vermeer C. Gamma-carboxyglutamate-containing proteins and the vitamin K-dependent carboxylase. Biochem J 1990; 266:625-36. [PMID: 2183788 PMCID: PMC1131186 DOI: 10.1042/bj2660625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 209] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- C Vermeer
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Limburg, Maastricht, The Netherlands
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Taylor AK, Linkhart SG, Mohan S, Baylink DJ. Development of a new radioimmunoassay for human osteocalcin: evidence for a midmolecule epitope. Metabolism 1988; 37:872-7. [PMID: 2458519 DOI: 10.1016/0026-0495(88)90122-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Osteocalcin is a vitamin K-dependent bone-specific protein that can be found circulating in the serum. The circulating levels of osteocalcin have been shown to be an index of bone turnover. Existing radioimmunoassays for osteocalcin have been shown to be specific for C-terminal epitopes, a region that is identical in the human and bovine osteocalcin. There are, however, five amino acids different in the N-terminal region of the molecule. We describe here an immunoassay for a midmolecule epitope of osteocalcin using osteocalcin purified from human femoral head bone powder. Antibody specificity was determined using tryptic digests and a synthetic fragment of human osteocalcin. This assay has only a partial crossreactivity with bovine osteocalcin. This is the first report of an assay against a midmolecular epitope of osteocalcin involving a region in which the human and bovine osteocalcins differ. Osteocalcin levels determined by this assay have a significant correlation with both the total serum alkaline phosphatase and the serum skeletal alkaline phosphatase levels in normal adult human serum and, to a greater degree, in sera of patients with conditions associated with increased bone turnover (Paget's disease, hyperparathyroidism, and newborn sera). These correlations are greater than those previously reported for C-terminal assays, suggesting the possibility that different regions of the molecule may elicit different information concerning bone turnover.
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Affiliation(s)
- A K Taylor
- Jerry Pettis VA Hospital, Department of Biochemistry, CA, Loma Linda, CA 92357
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Ulrich MM, Perizonius WR, Spoor CF, Sandberg P, Vermeer C. Extraction of osteocalcin from fossil bones and teeth. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1987; 149:712-9. [PMID: 3501291 DOI: 10.1016/0006-291x(87)90426-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Osteocalcin (also called 'bone Gla-protein') was detected in fossil bovid bones ranging from 12,000 years to 13 million years old and in rodent teeth 30 million years old. Both the antigenic activity and the protein-bound Gla-residues have remained intact. The protein is indistinguishable from recent bovine osteocalcin when analyzed by HPLC using ion exchange and size exclusion columns. If sufficient amounts can be extracted and an adequate purification procedure is established, this would be the first time that amino acid sequences in a protein from fossil bones may be determined. Such sequence data could offer a new approach to the phylogenetic study of extinct taxa.
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Affiliation(s)
- M M Ulrich
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Limburg, Maastricht, The Netherlands
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