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Tahoun M, Gee CT, McCoy VE, Stoneman M, Raicu V, Engeser M, Müller CE. Suberin, the hallmark constituent of bark, identified in a 45-million-year-old monkeyhair tree (Coumoxylon hartigii) from Geiseltal, Germany. Sci Rep 2024; 14:118. [PMID: 38167954 PMCID: PMC10761729 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-50402-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2023] [Accepted: 12/19/2023] [Indexed: 01/05/2024] Open
Abstract
Suberin, a complex biopolymer, forms a water- and gas-insoluble barrier that protects the inner tissues of plants. It is abundant in tree bark, particularly in the cork oak Quercus suber. Anatomically, fossil bark has been described since the Devonian. However, its distinctive constituent suberin has not yet been reported from the fossil record. Here we present unambiguous chemical evidence for intact suberin from the bark of a middle Eocene monkeyhair tree from Geiseltal, eastern Germany. High-performance liquid chromatography coupled to electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (HPLC-ESI-MS) detected constituents of suberin in the outer layer the fossil monkeyhair tree, which confirms previous morphological interpretation of this tissue as bark, and chemically differentiates this layer from the two tissues of the inner layer. Notably, this is the first study with compelling chemical evidence for suberin in fossil bark. Fluorescence microspectroscopy additionally supports the presence of suberin. Fossilization conditions in the Eocene Geiseltal deposit were likely mild, with low moisture and temperatures, contributing to the remarkable preservation of bark and inner laticifer mats of the monkeyhair trees growing there 45 million years ago.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariam Tahoun
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, PharmaCenter Bonn, Pharmaceutical Institute, University of Bonn, An der Immenburg 4, 53121, Bonn, Germany
| | - Carole T Gee
- Division of Paleontology, Institute of Geosciences, University of Bonn, Nussallee 8, 53115, Bonn, Germany.
| | - Victoria E McCoy
- Department of Geosciences, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI, 53211, USA
| | - Michael Stoneman
- Department of Physics, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI, 53211, USA
| | - Valerica Raicu
- Department of Physics, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI, 53211, USA
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI, 53211, USA
| | - Marianne Engeser
- Kekulé Institute for Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Bonn, 53121, Bonn, Germany
| | - Christa E Müller
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, PharmaCenter Bonn, Pharmaceutical Institute, University of Bonn, An der Immenburg 4, 53121, Bonn, Germany.
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2
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Salah M, Tahoun M, Rudzitis-Auth J, Stotz L, van Koppen CJ, Laschke MW, Abdelsamie AS, Frotscher M. Potent Dual Inhibitors of Steroid Sulfatase and 17β-Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenase Type 1 with a Suitable Pharmacokinetic Profile for In Vivo Proof-of-Principle Studies in an Endometriosis Mouse Model. J Med Chem 2023. [PMID: 37369108 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.3c00571] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/29/2023]
Abstract
Treating estrogen-dependent diseases like endometriosis with drugs suppressing local estrogen activation may be superior to existing endocrine therapies. Steroid sulfatase (STS) and 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 (17β-HSD1) are key enzymes of local estrogen activation. We describe the rational design, synthesis, and biological profilation of furan-based compounds as a novel class of dual STS/17β-HSD1 inhibitors (DSHIs). In T47D cells, compound 5 showed irreversible inhibition of STS and potent, reversible inhibition of 17β-HSD1. It was selective over 17β-HSD2 and displayed high metabolic stabilities in human and mouse liver S9 fractions. No effect on cell viability was detected up to 31 μM (HEK293) and 23 μM (HepG2), respectively, and there was no activation of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) up to 3.16 μM. Single daily application to mice revealed steady-state plasma levels high enough to make this compound eligible for an in vivo proof-of-principle study in a mouse endometriosis model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed Salah
- Department of Pharmacy, Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Saarland University, Campus C23, 66123 Saarbrücken, Germany
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, Newgiza University (NGU), Newgiza, km 22 Cairo-Alexandria Desert Road, 12577 Cairo, Egypt
| | - Mariam Tahoun
- Department of Pharmacy, Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Saarland University, Campus C23, 66123 Saarbrücken, Germany
- PharmaCenter Bonn, Pharmaceutical Institute, Department of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, University of Bonn, An der Immenburg 4, 53121 Bonn, Germany
| | - Jeannette Rudzitis-Auth
- Institute for Clinical and Experimental Surgery, Saarland University, 66421 Homburg, Germany
| | - Lisa Stotz
- Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, Saarland University Hospital, 66421 Homburg, Germany
| | | | - Matthias W Laschke
- Institute for Clinical and Experimental Surgery, Saarland University, 66421 Homburg, Germany
| | - Ahmed S Abdelsamie
- Department of Chemistry of Natural and Microbial Products, Institute of Pharmaceutical and Drug Industries Research, National Research Centre, El-Buhouth St., Dokki, P.O. Box 12622 Cairo, Egypt
- Department of Drug Design and Optimization, Helmholtz Institute for Pharmaceutical Research Saarland (HIPS) - Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research (HZI), Campus E81, 66123 Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Martin Frotscher
- Department of Pharmacy, Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Saarland University, Campus C23, 66123 Saarbrücken, Germany
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Tahoun M, Engeser M, Svolacchia L, Sander PM, Müller CE. Molecular Taphonomy of Heme: Chemical Degradation of Hemin under Presumed Fossilization Conditions. Molecules 2023; 28:4887. [PMID: 37446548 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28134887] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2023] [Revised: 06/16/2023] [Accepted: 06/18/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The metalloporphyrin heme acts as the oxygen-complexing prosthetic group of hemoglobin in blood. Heme has been noted to survive for many millions of years in fossils. Here, we investigate its stability and degradation under various conditions expected to occur during fossilization. Oxidative, reductive, aerobic, and anaerobic conditions were studied at neutral and alkaline pH values. Elevated temperatures were applied to accelerate degradation. High-performance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS) identified four main degradation products. The vinyl residues are oxidized to formyl and further to carboxylate groups. In the presence of air or H2O2, cleavage of the tetrapyrrole ring occurs, and hematinic acid is formed. The highest stability of heme was observed under anaerobic reductive conditions (half-life 9.5 days), while the lowest stability was found in the presence of H2O2 (half-life 1 min). We confirmed that the iron cation plays a crucial role in degradation, since protoporphyrin IX, lacking iron, remained significantly more stable. Under anaerobic, reductive conditions, the above-mentioned degradation products were not observed, suggesting a different degradation pathway. To our knowledge, this is the first molecular taphonomy study on heme, which will be useful for understanding its fate during fossilization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariam Tahoun
- PharmaCenter Bonn & Pharmaceutical Institute, Department of Pharmaceutical & Medicinal Chemistry, University of Bonn, An der Immenburg 4, 53121 Bonn, Germany
| | - Marianne Engeser
- Kekulé Institute for Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Bonn, 53121 Bonn, Germany
| | - Luca Svolacchia
- PharmaCenter Bonn & Pharmaceutical Institute, Department of Pharmaceutical & Medicinal Chemistry, University of Bonn, An der Immenburg 4, 53121 Bonn, Germany
| | - Paul Martin Sander
- Section Paleontology, Institute of Geosciences, University of Bonn, 53115 Bonn, Germany
| | - Christa E Müller
- PharmaCenter Bonn & Pharmaceutical Institute, Department of Pharmaceutical & Medicinal Chemistry, University of Bonn, An der Immenburg 4, 53121 Bonn, Germany
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Mohamed A, Salah M, Tahoun M, Hawner M, Abdelsamie AS, Frotscher M. Dual Targeting of Steroid Sulfatase and 17β-Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenase Type 1 by a Novel Drug-Prodrug Approach: A Potential Therapeutic Option for the Treatment of Endometriosis. J Med Chem 2022; 65:11726-11744. [PMID: 35993890 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.2c00589] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
A novel approach for the dual inhibition of steroid sulfatase (STS) and 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1(17β HSD1) by a single drug was explored, starting from in-house 17β HSD1 inhibitors via masking their phenolic OH group with a sulfamate ester. The sulfamates were intentionally designed as drugs for the inhibition of STS and, at the same time, prodrugs for 17β-HSD1 inhibition ("drug-prodrug approach"). The most promising sulfamates 13, 16, 18-20, 22-24, 36, and 37 showed nanomolar IC50 values for STS inhibition in a cellular assay and their corresponding phenols displayed potent 17β-HSD1 inhibition in cell-free and cellular assays, high selectivity over 17β-HSD2, reasonable metabolic stability, and low estrogen receptor α affinity. A close relationship was found between the liberation of the phenolic compound by sulfamate hydrolysis and 17β-HSD1 inactivation. These results showed that the envisaged drug-prodrug concept was successfully implemented. The novel compounds constitute a promising class of therapeutics for the treatment of endometriosis and other estrogen-dependent diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdelrahman Mohamed
- Department of Pharmacy, Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Saarland University, Campus C23, Saarbrücken D-66123, Germany.,Pharmaceutical Organic Chemistry Department, Assiut University, Assiut 71526, Egypt
| | - Mohamed Salah
- Department of Pharmacy, Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Saarland University, Campus C23, Saarbrücken D-66123, Germany.,Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, October University for Modern Sciences and Arts, Cairo 12451, Egypt
| | - Mariam Tahoun
- Department of Pharmacy, Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Saarland University, Campus C23, Saarbrücken D-66123, Germany
| | - Manuel Hawner
- Department of Pharmacy, Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Saarland University, Campus C23, Saarbrücken D-66123, Germany
| | - Ahmed S Abdelsamie
- Department of Chemistry of Natural and Microbial Products, Institute of Pharmaceutical and Drug Industries Research, National Research Centre, El-Buhouth St., Dokki, P.O. Box 12622 Cairo 12451, Egypt.,Department of Drug Design and Optimization, Helmholtz Institute for Pharmaceutical Research Saarland (HIPS) - Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research (HZI), Campus Building E81, Saarbrücken 66123, Germany
| | - Martin Frotscher
- Department of Pharmacy, Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Saarland University, Campus C23, Saarbrücken D-66123, Germany
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Mähler B, Janssen K, Tahoun M, Tomaschek F, Schellhorn R, Müller CE, Bierbaum G, Rust J. Adipocere formation in biofilms as a first step in soft tissue preservation. Sci Rep 2022; 12:10122. [PMID: 35710834 PMCID: PMC9203803 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-14119-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2022] [Accepted: 06/01/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
The preservation of soft tissue in the fossil record is mostly due to the replacement of organic structures by minerals (e.g. calcite, aragonite or apatite) called pseudomorphs. In rare cases soft tissues were preserved by pyrite. We assume that adipocere, as the shaping component, might be a preliminary stage in the pyritisation of soft tissues under anaerobic conditions. Using high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to ultraviolet and mass spectrometric detection (HPLC–UV/MS) and confocal Raman spectroscopy (CRS) we were able to demonstrate the transformation of the hepatopancreas (digestive gland) of the crayfish Cambarellus diminutus [Hobbs 1945] into adipocere within only 9 days, just inside a biofilm. Microorganisms (bacteria and fungi) which were responsible for the biofilm (Sphaerotilus [Kutzig 1833] and Pluteus [Fries 1857]) and maybe the adipocere formation (Clostridium [Prazmowski 1880]) were detected by 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing. Furthermore, micro-computed tomography (µ-CT) analyses revealed a precipitation of calcite and further showed that in animals with biofilm formation calcite precipitates in finer grained crystals than in individuals without biofilm formation, and that the precipitates were denser and replicated the structures of the cuticles better than the coarse precipitates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bastian Mähler
- Section Palaeontology, Institute of Geosciences, Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms Universität Bonn, 53115, Bonn, Germany.
| | - Kathrin Janssen
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, Medical Faculty, Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms Universität, 53127, Bonn, Germany
| | - Mariam Tahoun
- Pharmazeutisches Institut, Pharmazeutische und Medizinische Chemie, Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Bonn, 53121, Bonn, Germany
| | - Frank Tomaschek
- Section Geochemistry/Petrology, Institute of Geosciences, Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Bonn, 53115, Bonn, Germany
| | - Rico Schellhorn
- Section Palaeontology, Institute of Geosciences, Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms Universität Bonn, 53115, Bonn, Germany
| | - Christa E Müller
- Pharmazeutisches Institut, Pharmazeutische und Medizinische Chemie, Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Bonn, 53121, Bonn, Germany
| | - Gabriele Bierbaum
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, Medical Faculty, Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms Universität, 53127, Bonn, Germany
| | - Jes Rust
- Section Palaeontology, Institute of Geosciences, Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms Universität Bonn, 53115, Bonn, Germany
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Tahoun M, Engeser M, Namasivayam V, Sander PM, Müller CE. Chemistry and Analysis of Organic Compounds in Dinosaurs. Biology (Basel) 2022; 11:670. [PMID: 35625398 PMCID: PMC9138232 DOI: 10.3390/biology11050670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2022] [Revised: 04/12/2022] [Accepted: 04/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
This review provides an overview of organic compounds detected in non-avian dinosaur fossils to date. This was enabled by the development of sensitive analytical techniques. Non-destructive methods and procedures restricted to the sample surface, e.g., light and electron microscopy, infrared (IR) and Raman spectroscopy, as well as more invasive approaches including liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry, and immunological methods were employed. Organic compounds detected in samples of dinosaur fossils include pigments (heme, biliverdin, protoporphyrin IX, melanin), and proteins, such as collagens and keratins. The origin and nature of the observed protein signals is, however, in some cases, controversially discussed. Molecular taphonomy approaches can support the development of suitable analytical methods to confirm reported findings and to identify further organic compounds in dinosaur and other fossils in the future. The chemical properties of the various organic compounds detected in dinosaurs, and the techniques utilized for the identification and analysis of each of the compounds will be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariam Tahoun
- PharmaCenter Bonn, Pharmaceutical Institute, Pharmaceutical & Medicinal Chemistry, University of Bonn, D-53121 Bonn, Germany; (M.T.); (V.N.)
| | - Marianne Engeser
- Kekulé Institute for Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Bonn, D-53121 Bonn, Germany;
| | - Vigneshwaran Namasivayam
- PharmaCenter Bonn, Pharmaceutical Institute, Pharmaceutical & Medicinal Chemistry, University of Bonn, D-53121 Bonn, Germany; (M.T.); (V.N.)
| | - Paul Martin Sander
- Institute of Geosciences, Section Paleontology, University of Bonn, D-53113 Bonn, Germany;
| | - Christa E. Müller
- PharmaCenter Bonn, Pharmaceutical Institute, Pharmaceutical & Medicinal Chemistry, University of Bonn, D-53121 Bonn, Germany; (M.T.); (V.N.)
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7
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Schlegel JG, Tahoun M, Seidinger A, Voss JH, Kuschak M, Kehraus S, Schneider M, Matthey M, Fleischmann BK, König GM, Wenzel D, Müller CE. Macrocyclic Gq Protein Inhibitors FR900359 and/or YM-254890-Fit for Translation? ACS Pharmacol Transl Sci 2021; 4:888-897. [PMID: 33860209 DOI: 10.1021/acsptsci.1c00021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Guanine nucleotide-binding proteins (G proteins) transduce extracellular signals received by G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) to intracellular signaling cascades. While GPCRs represent the largest class of drug targets, G protein inhibition has only recently been recognized as a novel strategy for treating complex diseases such as asthma, inflammation, and cancer. The structurally similar macrocyclic depsipeptides FR900359 (FR) and YM-254890 (YM) are potent selective inhibitors of the Gq subfamily of G proteins. FR and YM differ in two positions, FR being more lipophilic than YM. Both compounds are utilized as pharmacological tools to block Gq proteins in vitro and in vivo. However, no detailed characterization of FR and YM has been performed, which is a prerequisite for the compounds' translation into clinical application. Here, we performed a thorough study of both compounds' physicochemical, pharmacokinetic, and pharmacological properties. Chemical stability was high across a large range of pH values, with FR being somewhat more stable than YM. Oral bioavailability and brain penetration of both depsipeptides were low. FR showed lower plasma protein binding and was metabolized significantly faster than YM by human and mouse liver microsomes. FR accumulated in lung after chronic intratracheal or intraperitoneal application, while YM was more distributed to other organs. Most strikingly, the previously observed longer residence time of FR resulted in a significantly prolonged pharmacologic effect as compared to YM in a methacholine-induced bronchoconstriction mouse model. These results prove that changes within a molecule which seem marginal compared to its structural complexity can lead to crucial pharmacological differences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan G Schlegel
- PharmaCenter Bonn, Pharmaceutical Institute, Pharmaceutical & Medicinal Chemistry, University of Bonn, An der Immenburg 4, 53121 Bonn, Germany
| | - Mariam Tahoun
- PharmaCenter Bonn, Pharmaceutical Institute, Pharmaceutical & Medicinal Chemistry, University of Bonn, An der Immenburg 4, 53121 Bonn, Germany
| | - Alexander Seidinger
- Department of Systems Physiology, Medical Faculty, Ruhr University Bochum, 44801 Bochum, Germany
| | - Jan H Voss
- PharmaCenter Bonn, Pharmaceutical Institute, Pharmaceutical & Medicinal Chemistry, University of Bonn, An der Immenburg 4, 53121 Bonn, Germany
| | - Markus Kuschak
- PharmaCenter Bonn, Pharmaceutical Institute, Pharmaceutical & Medicinal Chemistry, University of Bonn, An der Immenburg 4, 53121 Bonn, Germany
| | - Stefan Kehraus
- Institute for Pharmaceutical Biology, University of Bonn, 53115 Bonn, Germany
| | - Marion Schneider
- PharmaCenter Bonn, Pharmaceutical Institute, Pharmaceutical & Medicinal Chemistry, University of Bonn, An der Immenburg 4, 53121 Bonn, Germany
| | - Michaela Matthey
- Department of Systems Physiology, Medical Faculty, Ruhr University Bochum, 44801 Bochum, Germany
| | - Bernd K Fleischmann
- Institute of Physiology I, Life & Brain Center, Medical Faculty, University of Bonn, 53105 Bonn, Germany
| | - Gabriele M König
- Institute for Pharmaceutical Biology, University of Bonn, 53115 Bonn, Germany
| | - Daniela Wenzel
- Department of Systems Physiology, Medical Faculty, Ruhr University Bochum, 44801 Bochum, Germany.,Institute of Physiology I, Life & Brain Center, Medical Faculty, University of Bonn, 53105 Bonn, Germany
| | - Christa E Müller
- PharmaCenter Bonn, Pharmaceutical Institute, Pharmaceutical & Medicinal Chemistry, University of Bonn, An der Immenburg 4, 53121 Bonn, Germany
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Tahoun M, Gee CT, McCoy VE, Sander PM, Müller CE. Chemistry of porphyrins in fossil plants and animals. RSC Adv 2021; 11:7552-7563. [PMID: 35423242 PMCID: PMC8695116 DOI: 10.1039/d0ra10688g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2020] [Accepted: 02/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Porphyrins are macrocyclic tetrapyrrole derivatives that are widely distributed in nature. They are often complexed with a metal ion located in the center of the ring system and may be modified by various substituents including additional rings, or by ring opening, which leads to a plethora of different functions. Due to their extended conjugated aromatic ring system, porphyrins absorb light in the visible range and therefore show characteristic colors. Well-known natural porphyrins include the red-colored heme present in hemoglobin, which is responsible for blood oxygen transport, and the chlorophylls in some bacteria and in plants which are utilized for photosynthesis. Porphyrins are mostly lipophilic pigments that display relatively high chemical stability. Therefore, they can even survive hundreds of millions of years. The present review article provides an overview of natural porphyrins, their chemical structures, and properties. A special focus is put on porphyrins discovered in the fossil record. Examples will be highlighted, and information on their chemical analysis will be provided. We anticipate that the development of novel analytical methods with increased sensitivity will prompt new discoveries of porphyrins in fossils.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariam Tahoun
- Pharmaceutical Institute, Pharmaceutical & Medicinal Chemistry, University of Bonn An der Immenburg 4 53121 Bonn Germany
| | - Carole T Gee
- Institute of Geosciences, Division of Paleontology, University of Bonn Nussallee 8 53115 Bonn Germany
- Huntington Botanical Gardens 1151 Oxford Road San Marino California 91108 USA
| | - Victoria E McCoy
- Department of Geosciences, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee 3209 N Maryland Ave Milwaukee WI 53211 USA
| | - P Martin Sander
- Institute of Geosciences, Division of Paleontology, University of Bonn Nussallee 8 53115 Bonn Germany
| | - Christa E Müller
- Pharmaceutical Institute, Pharmaceutical & Medicinal Chemistry, University of Bonn An der Immenburg 4 53121 Bonn Germany
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